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The Curious Case of Phineas Gage: Paving The Way for Neuroscience

Picture this: It’s September 13, 1848, and in the quiet town of Cavendish, Vermont, a 25-year-old named Phineas Gage is immersed in the routine work of a railroad foreman. Engaged in the meticulous task of preparing a railroad bed, Gage handles an iron tamping rod with practiced hands, packing explosive powder into the ground. Little did he know that the trajectory of that iron rod would alter the course of his life, and end up providing insight into the functions of the human brain for years to come.

As the explosive powder detonated due to the friction, the rod was launched into his left cheek, destroying his eye. It made its way through the left front of the brain before exiting the skull from the right side. However, despite such an intense accident, Gage was still able to walk and talk while looking for medical assistance. During his recovery, Gage was treated by a number of medical professionals, including Dr. John Harlow, who would report the case in the Boston Medical Surgery Journal.

However, what truly made the case of Phineas Gage so remarkable and relevant in the history of various fields like psychology and neuroscience was not only his ability to survive a seemingly fatal injury but how this accident had changed him on a mental and emotional plane. Prior to the accident, coworkers, friends, and family of Phineas Gage described him to be hardworking, energetic, and pleasant. After the accident, they went as far as saying that he was “no longer Gage”. His irritable manner resulted in him losing his job. In the later years of his life, his personality would return to the way it was, signaling that healing in the frontal lobe could reverse personality changes. The primary area of injury in Gage’s accident was the frontal lobe; At the time, the frontal lobes were ‘considered silent structures, without function and unrelated to human behaviour.’ so the fact that only his personality was changed led early neurologists to alter their current understanding of the brain’s localisation of function.

The concept of the localisation of function in the brain refers to the idea that specific cognitive and behavioural functions are associated with particular regions or areas within the brain. This principle suggests that different parts of the brain are responsible for different functions, and damage to or stimulation of specific areas can result in predictable changes in behaviour or cognitive abilities.

All in all, the extraordinary story of Phineas Gage, propelled by an unforeseen accident, has left an indisputable mark on the early field of neuroscience. His story unraveled and uncovered the functions of the brain and tested the limits of human survival. He inspired many experts to delve into researching and perfecting knowledge on the localization of functions in the human brain. Today, his skull and the rod that injured him are both on display at the Warren Anatomical Museum in Boston.

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Optimizing Your Approach to Understanding and Effectively Managing Migraines

When people hear the word “migraine,” they think it’s just a severe headache or pain slightly more than a throbbing sensation in the temples. However, there are differences between the two that are important to note. 

What is a migraine?

A migraine is more than a headache; it’s a neurological condition affecting more than one billion individuals yearly. Its most notable aspect is a pulsing headache on one side of the head, but it’s common to have a migraine without this pain. Other symptoms include aura, ringing in the ears, neck or shoulder pain, nausea, light or sound sensitivity, and irritability. Aura is a mixture of sensory, motor, and speech symptoms that act as warning signals before a migraine attack begins. About 15-20% of people experience migraine with aura. 

There are four stages of a migraine attack. The first is prodrome, also known as preheadache, which can last a few hours to a few days. Symptoms include difficulty concentrating, speaking and reading, and moving muscles. The second is aura; this is the stage that some people may skip. The third is attack. Its main feature is a headache, and symptoms mimic an illness (nausea, loss of appetite, chills or sweating, dizziness). The last is post-drome, also called a migraine “hangover,” as its symptoms are similar to one: aches, mental fog, and feeling physically drained.

Figure 1: Overview of the Four Phases of a Migraine

How are the dealt with?

Unfortunately, very little is known about what triggers a migraine. The best way to deal with a migraine is to avoid it in the first place: if you can figure out its triggers, then avoid it. 

Common triggers include drugs like alcohol and caffeine, stress, bright lights, strong smells, and a lack of sleep. Genetics also plays a significant role. About 60% of people have migraines because they inherited it.

If over-the-counter medicines like Advil Migraine or Excedrin Migraine don’t work, doctors can prescribe sumatriptan or rizatriptan. Both block pain pathways in the brain.

In general, hunkering down in a quiet, dark place and resting is the best way to deal with migraine pain. While there’s a common misconception that migraines are just more painful headaches, they are much more than that and should be taken seriously. As you would with any illness, do what you must do to feel better. 

Figure 2: The Brain With a Migraine in an MRI

Sources: 

https://www.pennmedicine.org/updates/blogs/health-and-wellness/2019/november/migraines-vs-headaches

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8904749/#:~:text=Migraine%20affects%20more%20than%20one,among%20young%20adults%20and%20females

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/-/scassets/images/org/health/articles/5005-migraine-headaches.jpg

https://www.mayo.edu/research/centers-programs/migraine-research-program/overview#:~:text=Migraine%20is%20challenging%20to%20study,the%20disorder%20as%20a%20disease

https://www.verywellhealth.com/thmb/CHtrxODCBCw9pmMDeotVPi-I7fI=/1500×0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/brain-lesions-on-mri-in-migraines-4044746-5c93cd0646e0fb00014427d0.png

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Gaming Wonders: The Science Behind the Screen

Have you ever found yourself lost in the immersive worlds of video games and wondered about the wizardry behind them? Well, buckle up as we take a deep dive into the fascinating science and technology that make our favorite gaming adventures possible.

Graphics and Animation


In the visually rich landscapes and characters of video games, a seamless integration of art and science takes place. Developers utilize techniques like texture mapping and shading to craft engaging environments. Our examination begins with the technical nuances that constitute the visuals, shedding light on how pixels contribute to the creation of digital landscapes.

Image by Onur Binay on Unspash

Artificial Intelligence in Gaming

The lifelike behaviors of non-player characters (NPCs) often feel like true users, but it’s the result of carefully implemented artificial intelligence (AI). Developers deploy algorithms that govern NPC actions, bringing a dynamic element to the gaming experience. For example, in Grand Theft Auto (GTA) and Roblox, non-player characters (NPCs) operate through sophisticated AI systems. These systems use decision-making algorithms to create role-specific behaviors, allowing NPCs to react dynamically to the player’s actions. Advanced AI may include adaptive learning, environmental awareness, scripted events, and randomized elements, contributing to a dynamic and realistic gaming experience.

Mani (GTA NPC), Image by GTA – Wiki Fandom
Roblox NPC, Image by Roblox Developer Forum

Virtual Reality: Mechanics of Immersive Gameplay

Within this captivating technological realm, players are not merely spectators; they become active participants, navigating a three-dimensional space that transcends the boundaries of traditional gaming. In the expansive universe of VR, users have the opportunity to explore distant galaxies, unravel ancient mysteries, and interact with environments in ways previously unimaginable.
The transformative nature of VR lies in its ability to engage multiple senses simultaneously. Visual immersion is achieved through high-resolution displays and sophisticated optics that mimic the intricacies of the human eye. Additionally, spatial awareness is meticulously crafted, allowing users to perceive depth, distance, and scale with an unprecedented level of precision. The result is an intricate dance of technology and human perception, seamlessly blending the virtual and physical worlds.
Moreover, the mechanics of VR extend beyond the visual and spatial realms. Haptic feedback technology adds a tactile dimension to the experience, enabling users to feel virtual textures, surfaces, and even the recoil of virtual weaponry. This tactile feedback, coupled with precise motion tracking, enhances the sense of presence, making users feel truly connected to the virtual environment.
The significance of VR in gaming goes beyond its immersive qualities. It catalyzes innovation, fostering the development of new gameplay mechanics, interactive narratives, and social experiences. Collaborative virtual spaces enable users to connect with others worldwide, creating a shared virtual reality that transcends geographical boundaries.

However, players contribute to the evolving landscape through strategic decisions and interactions. This section emphasizes that every gamer, regardless of attire or setting, plays a part in the ongoing narrative of virtual adventures.
As this article is concluding, remember this: behind every pixel, NPC maneuver, and virtual reality wonder lies a symphony of science and innovation. Gaming isn’t just entertainment; it’s a dynamic collaboration between creators and players, shaping immersive worlds. So, as you venture forth with your controller in hand or don the VR headset, remember that you are not merely a spectator; you are an active participant in this grand symphony of gaming. The pixels respond to your commands, NPCs dance to the algorithms you set in motion, and the immersive worlds of virtual reality await your exploration.

References:

However, players contribute to the evolving landscape through strategic decisions and interactions. This section emphasizes that every gamer, regardless of attire or setting, plays a part in the ongoing narrative of virtual adventures.

As this article is concluding, remember this: behind every pixel, NPC maneuver, and virtual reality wonder lies a symphony of science and innovation. Gaming isn’t just entertainment; it’s a dynamic collaboration between creators and players, shaping immersive worlds.  So, as you venture forth with your controller in hand or don the VR headset, remember that you are not merely a spectator; you are an active participant in this grand symphony of gaming. The pixels respond to your commands, NPCs dance to the algorithms you set in motion, and the immersive worlds of virtual reality await your exploration.

References:

  1. TeamViewer. (2023, 29 marzo). What is virtual reality (VR) and how does it work? https://www.teamviewer.com/en/info/what-is-virtual-reality-vr-and-how-does-it-work/ 
  2. Carter, R. (2023, 1 junio). How does virtual reality work? XR Today. https://www.xrtoday.com/virtual-reality/how-does-virtual-reality-work/ 
  3. Stegner, B. (2019, 11 octubre). Video game graphics and settings explained. MUO. https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/video-game-graphics-settings-explained/ 
  4. Stegner, B. (2019, 11 octubre). Video game graphics and settings explained. MUO. https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/video-game-graphics-settings-explained/ 
  5. Encyclopedia, C. T. G. T. (s. f.). Mani. Grand Theft Encyclopedia. https://gta.fandom.com/es/wiki/Mani
  6. Wilkins, M. (2021, 15 agosto). 5 NPCs in GTA games that protagonists have interesting interactions with. Sportskeeda. https://www.sportskeeda.com/gta/5-npcs-gta-games-protagonists-interesting-interaction
  7. Starloop Studios. (2023, 20 octubre). AI Advancements and Hurdles: Perfecting Non-Player Characters. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/ai-advancements-hurdles-perfecting-non-player-characters#:~:text=Non%2Dplayer%20characters%2C%20or%20NPCs,to%20a%20compelling%20gameplay%20experience. 
  8. What is an NPC and why it matters for your game storytelling. (s. f.). https://www.rosebud.ai/blog/what-is-an-npc-video-games-storytelling 
  9. Cover image credit: Image by Iman Pham on Unsplash

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Human Perception Unveiled: A Distinctive Collection of Our Perceptions

Our sensory processing is how we perceive and organize the messages from our senses (visual, auditory, taste, smell, touch, and body awareness). Sensory receptors are located throughout our body and constantly send messages to our brain and spinal cord. When these sensory receptors receive a message, they conduct an electrical impulse that is transmitted by neurons to our central nervous system (composed of our brain and spinal cord). Our neurons process this information and turn it into a motor or behavioral response. The impulse travels to our motor neurons and is sent to an effector (ex: a muscle or a gland) to execute a motor or behavioral response. 

Someone looks at their glass of water, which activates their visual receptors. An electrical impulse is sent to their central nervous system, relaying a message. Through seeing this glass of water, their central nervous system receives the message that the body is thirsty. The impulse travels to the motor neuron to get a muscle to pick up the glass of water and take a drink. A muscle (effector) picks up the glass of water and the person drinks it.

Everyone processes stimuli differently, so our perception of the world sounds to us varies. Individuals who are neurodivergent or have atypical sensory processing can experience hypo sensitivity (under-responsive) or hypersensitivity (over-responsive). For example, those who are auditory-seeking are hyposensitive to sound, so they may need constant auditory stimulation through music, podcasts, or ambient noise.

Hypersensitivity may look like:

  • Visual: Lights are too bright, reacting suddenly to changes in bright lights
  • Auditory: Sounds are too loud or overwhelming, suddenly reacting to loud noises
  • Taste: The texture of certain foods may feel gross or out of place
  • Smell: Sensitive to strong scents such as perfumes
  • Touch: Sensitive to textures you touch, such as itchy clothes
  • Body Awareness: Bumping into objects and struggling with balance

Hyposensitivity may look like:

  • Visual: Enjoys visual stimulation such as bright and colorful light
  • Auditory: Going to concerts, listening to music at higher volumes
  • Taste: Likes to chew on things for stimulation
  • Smell: It may take longer to identify certain scents
  • Touch: Less awareness when it comes to being touched
  • Body Awareness: Struggling to keep still; you may not always recognize other people’s personal space

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Image source: Research Gate

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Stem Cells: The Fascinating Power Of Regenerative Medicine

What are stem cells? Maybe you’ve heard about them in science class, on the news, or in one of your favorite podcasts. In today’s world of medicine, stem cells can be considered revolutionary. They hold the power to make incredible advancements in medicine which could potentially change the way we fight and treat many diseases. In this article, we will cover the properties of stem cells, their current uses, and how they may further help in the near future.

An Overview:

Stem cells can be considered like clay; they can be molded, crafted, and shaped into anything. These cells can turn into specialized cells, which have their own unique function. Stem cells exist in all of our bodies and are found in a variety of tissues and organs such as the brain, pancreas, bones, skin, and heart.

There are multiple types of stem cells, two of which are currently being explored further.

Adult Stem Cells:

All around the body, we have a variety of stem cells. Some of these cells, such as stem cells found in the skin, are always active, whereas others lay dormant until needed. (ex, stem cells in the liver) One important note is that adult stem cells cannot freely turn into any type of specialized cell. They only turn into specialized cells that are in the surrounding area. For example, a stem cell in the heart could turn into a variety of cardiac cells, but would not have the capability to turn into a nerve cell in the brain. This trait of adult stem cells is something we call “multipotent”.

Embryonic Stem Cells:

Embryonic stem cells are much different than adult stem cells. They are found in a developing human embryo, typically from only the 4th-7th day after fertilization. These cells are considered pluripotent, meaning they can transform into any type of specialized cell.

Current Uses of Stem Cells:

Though stem cell treatment and therapy are both very new concepts, doctors and researchers have already developed some relatively safe uses for adult stem cells. For example, cancer patients who may have had red blood cells destroyed in treatment may be eligible for a “stem cell transplant” or “bone marrow transplant”. During this process, stem cells from a donor (Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplant) are introduced into the patient. The goal is that the patient’s body accepts the cells as its own, and in turn, can create new red blood cells. Stem cells can also come from the patient. Doctors may extract stem cells from the patient, store them, then reintroduce them at a later point. (Autologous Stem Cell Transplant) These types of transplants have also been proven to fight off certain blood-borne diseases. Currently, the use of stem cells in people is still quite limited. Doctors are still working towards using embryonic stem cells as they are more complex and harder to work with.

Further Research/Investigation:

Ongoing research is being conducted on the potential uses of stem cells. Researchers have worked with embryonic stem cells that will develop into a specialized cell of their choice. This could potentially be useful in testing drugs that target certain types of cells. On top of this, researchers are working to use embryonic cells with repairs involving tissue, organs, and even the spinal cord.

Conclusion:

Stem cells are still a big question mark in terms of their uses. Doctors and researchers continue to explore potential benefits. Through research, stem cells may have the potential to reshape the medical landscape, and change the way we treat diseases in the future.

Sources:

https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/bone-marrow-transplant/in-depth/stem-cells/art-20048117

https://stemcell.nd.edu/research/alternative-stem-cell-sources/adult-stem-cells/#:~:text=Unlike%20embryonic%20stem%20cells%2C%20which,they%20reside%20(called%20multipotent).

https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/bone-marrow-transplant/about/pac-20384854

https://www.whatisbiotechnology.org/index.php/science/summary/stem/stem-cells-repair-tissues-and-regenerate-cells

https://www.unmc.edu/stemcells/educational-resources/importance.html

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Clear Vision Unveiled: How Do Contact Lenses Work?

At least 2.2 billion people around the globe have impaired vision, and of these people, 140 million wear contact lenses. There are two general categories of contact lenses: soft and hard (also known as rigid gas permeable or RGP). Soft contacts are made of flexible plastics that offer more comfort and stability than hard contacts but are more difficult to insert and remove. On the other hand, hard contacts have a longer lifespan and lower risk of infection, but it’s easier to dislodge them from the eye.

Figure 1: Comparison of how different contacts look on the eye

How Do Contact Lenses Work?

No matter if they’re soft or RGP, contact lenses have a fascinating science behind them. They sit on top of the cornea, the eye’s transparent outer layer. There, they correct the refraction of light. Refractive errors make it challenging for the eye to focus light how it usually does, which results in blurry vision, and eyewear (glasses and contacts) fixes this issue.

Figure 2: Diagram of the cornea

For example, myopia, commonly known as nearsightedness, is the eye focusing light in front of the retina instead of directly onto it. Contact lenses help you see clearly by adjusting the light rays to angle further back into your eye, right onto the retina.

Glasses Vs. Contact Lenses

Of course, glasses are another option for blurry vision. However, many prefer contact lenses because they move with the eye, meaning you can look around a space with perfect vision. Glasses often leave room at the edges that they can’t correct. Also, contacts are handy with outdoor sports as they won’t fog up or get wet, unlike glasses.

While it can take some time to get used to the feeling of weight on your eye, contacts are a fan favorite for various reasons. They’ve come a long way since being invented in 1888 and are so technologically advanced that only 1 out of 500 wearers get severe eye infections! Whether you wear them or are simply intrigued by the innovation behind them, contact lenses promise a clearer and brighter future for all.

Sources:
10 Fun Facts About Contact Lenses | Professional VisionCare
The contact lens mistakes you might be making, and other important eye health tips
Types of Contact Lenses | FDA
Differences between Soft and Hard Contact Lenses | The Canadian Association of Optometrists
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326747398/figure/fig1/AS:654865197973504@1533143438259/Two-major-types-of-contact-lenses-Photographs-showing-the-a-hard-and-b-soft-contact.png
https://www.wolfeeyeclinic.com/filesimages/CorneaDisease/CorneaDisease_HeathyEyeDiagram.jpg
How Do Contact Lenses Work?: Benjamin Optical: Eye Center

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Planet Nine: A Scientific Odyssey into the Solar System’s Hidden Giant

In the expansive reaches of our solar system, a captivating scientific conundrum has surfaced, beckoning the keen minds of astronomers to embark on an intellectual odyssey.

What is “Planet X”?

The concept of a ninth planet, occasionally referred to as “Planet X,” is not new. Its historical roots are entwined with previous astronomical speculations. The upsurge of interest in this idea, however, can be attributed to the groundbreaking research of astronomers Konstantin Batygin and Mike Brown, whose 2016 work laid the groundwork for Planet Nine’s resurgence into the scientific forefront.

The Kuiper Belt, a celestial hinterland residing beyond Neptune, serves as the epicenter of the Planet Nine conundrum. It is a region inhabited by icy objects, among which Pluto and Eris – one of the largest known dwarf planets of our solar system – are renowned inhabitants. Yet, within this remote realm, subtle gravitational tugs on Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs) provide the first clues to the presence of a hidden planetary body.

Planet Nine defies direct visual recognition, lending it an enigmatic character that contributes to its allure. Its existence is deduced from the disturbances it causes in the orbits of KBOs, which lend distinctive properties to their elliptical paths.

“Planet X” Characteristics

Estimates suggest that Planet Nine could possess a mass ten times that of Earth, positioning it as a super-Earth-sized entity on the outskirts of our solar system. Presuming its existence, Planet Nine follows an elliptical orbit of remarkable eccentricity. It navigates a protracted journey, spanning thousands of terrestrial years to complete a single solar orbit. Given its staggering distance from the Sun, Planet Nine is expected to be a world shrouded in ice, with a substantial atmosphere to withstand the profound chill of its extraterrestrial habitat.

The scientific community continues its tireless quest to pinpoint Planet Nine. This relentless pursuit employs advanced telescopes and sophisticated data analysis techniques to survey the night sky, in the hopes of discerning the faint traces of this concealed celestial body.

The discovery of Planet Nine carries profound implications for the field of planetary science. It may elucidate the enigmatic deviations in the orbits of neighboring celestial bodies, shedding light on the intricacies of celestial mechanics and planetary formation. It may even shed light on undiscovered parts of theories we still know little about – gravity. Furthermore, the study of this ninth planet serves as a bridge between our solar system and the exoplanetary realm, permitting insights into the commonalities and distinctions between our planetary family and those found orbiting distant stars.

Planet Nine, the tantalizing cosmic mystery, exemplifies the scientific spirit’s relentless pursuit of knowledge. Its elusiveness, while complex, serves as a testament to the dedication of astronomers and their enduring quest to unearth the secrets of the solar system. As our technological prowess and understanding of the universe advance, we move ever closer to the resolution of this hypothetical ninth planet’s mystery. Until that moment arrives, the allure of the unknown, the thrill of scientific discovery, and the potential to redefine our comprehension of the solar system’s intricate dance continue to inspire the gaze of astronomers, directing us toward the realization of Planet Nine’s secrets and the recalibration of our cosmic narrative.

Bibliography
https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/caltech-researchers-find-evidence-real-ninth-planet-49523
https://science.nasa.gov/dwarf-planets/eris/
https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/planet-x/
https://www.space.com/planet-9-mystery-deepens-gravity-theory

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Perfume : A Scent-sational and Fascinating World

Have you ever wondered how perfumes work? Or why some scents make you feel happy while others make you feel sad? From the comforting aroma of freshly baked cookies to the invigorating scent of a pine forest, we often find that certain smells can remarkably transport us through time and space, awakening a cascade of feelings and memories. But really, how does it all come into play?

The History of Perfumes

Although France comes to mind when we think of perfume or fragrances, the ancient art of perfumery arose in ancient Mesopotamia. The world’s very first recorded chemist was a perfume maker named Tapputi, whose existence was recorded in 1200 BC in Babylonian Mesopotamia. Flowers, oils, seeds, leaves, and other plant parts were common ingredients in early perfumes.

Once mixed with water and other solvents, it would be distilled and filtered. Later on, perfume would reach Rome, the Middle East, and other European nations.
The reason perfumery is most associated with France is that in the 14th century, the French started the cultivation of flowers for perfume in the subprefecture of Grasse, which continues until this day. Grasse is now considered to be the world capital of perfume.

The Road to Make a Perfume

Most perfumes obtain their smell through the extraction of fragrant oils from natural sources like plants, fruits, and wood. Some even use substances from animals, like musk from male deer. However, scents that don’t occur naturally may be created by synthetic chemicals. The methods employed to extract essential oils include steam distillation, expression, and enfleurage.

These oils are later blended to produce a unique scent. Ingredients like alcohol, coal, and tar may be added to adjust or alter the strength of the scent. If the perfume contains a higher concentration of essential oil, it will be more fragrant and generally more costly. This is what differentiates fragrances from one another. 

The Emotional Ties to Scents

Perfumes work by releasing molecules into the air that we can smell. When we inhale them, these molecules bind to the highly specialised olfactory receptors in our nose, which can are able to detect thousands of different molecules. This binding will trigger a signal being sent to the brain, which will later correlate to a response.
Signals from sensory organs pass through the brain’s limbic system, which handles behaviours, emotions, and emotion-related memories.

The amygdala, a part of the limbic system, is responsible for emotional processing. It is also the part that connects emotions to memories. This is why certain scents can trigger strong emotions or memories.

So next time you wear a perfume, take a moment to appreciate the science behind it. And remember, the right scent can have a powerful effect on your mood and your memories.

Sources:

Images:

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The Grave Effects of Marijuana Consumption

Introduction:

Imagine you are at a social gathering and someone offers you a joint. You may have heard about the effects of marijuana from science classes and the media, but you may still be uncertain about what to expect. What happens to your brain and body when you embark on this journey? From the euphoric highs to the pitfalls of this green plant, in this exploration, we will dive deep into the intricate tapestry of marijuana’s effects on the brain and body, shedding light on both its allure and potential consequences, and examining the scientific side of this drug.

The Origins of Marijuana

Marijuana, also known as cannabis, has been a part of human culture for centuries. From traditional customs to modern recreational use, it has played a significant role in various cultures worldwide. While originally used for medicinal purposes, the use of this plant spread from Asia to Africa, Europe, and the Americas. In America, hemp, a variety of cannabis, was widely cultivated in the colonies of Virginia, Massachusetts, and Connecticut as a versatile resource for textiles, paper, and more. It is surprising to know that the early hemp plants had very low levels of the psychoactive compound THC. There are hints that ancient civilizations may have recognized the psychoactive potential of certain strains of the plant, potentially cultivating them for ceremonial or medicinal purposes. Evidence found in the graves of ancient shamans, including charred cannabis seeds, dates back to 500 BC and sheds light on the journey of cannabis through time.

The Compounds of Cannabis 

At the heart of marijuana’s enigmatic effects are over 500 distinct compounds in this green plant. The scent of this plant is due to the compound terpenoids which are responsible for the aroma of cannabis and other flowering plants. Studies show that terpenoids have diverse physiological effects, and they may contribute to the effects of cannabis. Moreover, cannabis contains unique compounds known as cannabinoids, with over 100 different types identified. The most well-known cannabinoid, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is responsible for the psychoactive effects of cannabis, including changes in perception, mood, emotion, cognition, and motor function. CBD has been receiving increasing attention due to its potential therapeutic properties.  These intricate compounds work together by interacting with the endocannabinoid system within our bodies, a sophisticated web of receptors that control a collection of physiological processes. The fascinating part is how various strains of marijuana contain different concentrations of THC, CBD, and other cannabinoids and terpenes. The chemical makeup of these drugs affects the body and mind in outlandish ways and understanding these compounds is essential for unraveling the mysteries of marijuana’s influence on our lives.

Short Term Effects

Even though the consumption of cannabis has long-term effects, it also has short-term effects that are striking and immediate. Those who consume edibles, smoke, or vape often find themselves embarking on a unique journey. In the presence of euphoria and an altered perception of this drug, colors appear more vivid, music becomes a symphony of sensations, and even food tastes different. However, this altered state always comes

with a price: impaired coordination and reflexes, an increased heart rate, dry mouth, and bloodshot eyes are frequent sidekicks of the cannabis experience. After taking cannabis, daily tasks that require concentration and focus may also be adversely affected temporarily when taking marijuana. When high doses or individual predispositions are present, this journey can unexpectedly turn into anxiety and paranoia. As a result, your heart rate can increase, making you more likely to suffer a heart attack, panic attack, or stroke.

Long Term Effects:

Through many years of debate and extensive scientific research, the effects of marijuana on the brain and body come with many long-term effects that might alter your mind about the narcotic. Cannabis use has been linked to various adverse health outcomes. Studies have shown that prolonged marijuana use can impair cognitive functions such as attention, memory, and learning (short-term memory), especially in adolescents. Furthermore, research shows that the usage of marijuana can raise the desire for alcohol,

increase the risk of bleeding, increase appetite, reduce the effectiveness of antiviral drugs, and lead to addiction. Moreover, addiction can lead to a lack of motivation and a decrease in educational and occupational achievements. There is a growing body of evidence linking cannabis use with mental health problems, psychosis (which can mimic the symptoms of schizophrenia), and more harmful substances. 

Conclusion:

In conclusion, our journey into the world of marijuana has revealed a complex and intricate landscape that requires a deep understanding of its nuances. While this green plant has deep historical and cultural roots, it also carries a myriad of compounds that interact with the human body and mind in unique ways. From the euphoric highs to the potential pitfalls, marijuana’s effects are both captivating and consequential through the various compounds that are within this potent green plant.

Sources:

https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements-marijuana/art-20364974

https://www.drugfreeworld.org/drugfacts/marijuana/short-and-long-term-effects.html

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Bioremediation: Hope in a Polluted World

In a world beset by pollution and environmental damage, bioremediation shines as a beacon of hope. This cutting-edge biotechnology harnesses the innate capabilities of living organisms, like fungi, to combat environmental crises. It presents an eco-friendly, cost-effective solution for cleansing soil, water, and ecosystems plagued by pollutants and toxins. In this article, we’ll explore the fascinating world of bioremediation, delving into its mechanisms, varied methods, and real-world applications.

Understanding Bioremediation

Bioremediation stands as a pioneering technique that leverages living organisms to restore balance to tainted environments. This innovative approach proves to be invaluable in addressing a spectrum of environmental challenges, from polluted groundwater to catastrophic oil spills. Be it the rejuvenation of a pristine forest or the rehabilitation of an industrial site, bioremediation promises an ecologically sustainable solution.

The Inner Workings of Bioremediation

At the core of bioremediation lies the stimulation of specific microorganisms, orchestrating nature’s own purification process. This method revolves around optimizing the conditions for these microorganisms to thrive, thus expediting the breakdown of contaminants. To achieve this, bioremediation employs various additives like molasses, vegetable oil, or even simple aeration. These additives serve as catalysts, invigorating microbial activity and creating a more hospitable environment for their growth.

Bioremediation can be implemented through two primary approaches: “in situ” and “ex-situ.” In situ bioremediation transpires directly at the site of contamination, while ex-situ bioremediation takes place elsewhere. The choice between the two hinges on factors such as climate, soil density, and the extent of contamination. Ex situ bioremediation may involve soil excavation and above-ground cleansing, potentially adding substantial costs to the process.

Advantages of Bioremediation

Bioremediation presents a range of compelling advantages as an environmentally friendly approach to tackling pollution and contamination challenges. By harnessing the natural abilities of microorganisms and minimizing disruption to ecosystems, it offers a cost-effective and sustainable solution. Bioremediation is versatile, capable of addressing various contaminants, and it generates fewer wastes, transforming pollutants into harmless byproducts. It boasts long-term effectiveness, adapts to site-specific conditions, and enjoys regulatory support in many regions. Moreover, this method promotes energy conservation and reduces the risks of accidents.

A Remarkable Bioremediation Case

A striking example of bioremediation’s success unfolded in the aftermath of the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill. This catastrophic incident saw the Exxon Valdez oil tanker run aground off Alaska’s coast, resulting in the release of approximately 11 million gallons of oil. As the world grappled with the enormity of the spill, bioremediation emerged as a promising solution.

Both the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Exxon Mobil Corporation initiated experiments with various compounds to mitigate the disaster. Initial tests with bioremediation yielded promising results. Between 1989 and 1990, over 100,000 pounds of fertilizer were applied through more than 2,000 applications to the affected areas. By mid-1992, the cleanup was declared complete, with the fertilizer successfully breaking down nearly all the oil compounds.

Easiest Example of Bioremediation

Composting can be perceived as a variant of bioremediation known as biodegradation. It transforms food waste into fertile soil, reducing the strain on landfills and contributing to a more sustainable environment.

Conclusion

Bioremediation stands as a powerful fusion of science and nature, furnishing humanity with a formidable tool to combat environmental pollution. Its reliance on natural processes, minimal disruption to ecosystems, and cost-effectiveness position it as an exemplary solution for a world in urgent need of environmental healing. As we confront the challenges of pollution, bioremediation serves as a testament to our capacity to harness nature’s forces to mend the damage we’ve inflicted upon the Earth.

Bibliography:

Mitchell, C. (2022). What is bioremediation, and how does it work (With examples)? Investopedia. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/bioremediation.asp
Admin. (2021). Bioremediation – process | Types of bioremediation | Examples. BYJUS. https://byjus.com/biology/bioremediation/
Society, M. (n.d.). Bioremediation: The pollution solution? Microbiology Society. https://microbiologysociety.org/blog/bioremediation-the-pollution-solution.html