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Broken Bones: Rebuilding From The Inside Out 

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What Are Bones?
Bones are the living tissue that contribute to the body’s skeletal system. The human body consists of 206 different bones, each with its own purpose. These bones vary in size and in shape, but are ultimately what make up the structure of the human body. Bones are an essential element in supporting and sustaining life, as they help protect internal organs, tissues, and muscles. Now what happens when we break a bone? How do we heal?

Fig. 1. Illustration of the largest and most important bones in the skeletal system.

How Do Bones Break?
Breaking a bone can happen to anyone, of any age, and is a very common injury. Over six million people in the U.S. break a bone each year.[1] Breaking a bone usually requires a strong amount of force that is too much for the bone to handle. This can come from high-impact collisions, awkward falls, or any other forms of major trauma. When a bone breaks, a person will usually experience an onset of painful symptoms. This may include swelling, bruising, bleeding, numbness, and tingling. [2] Some bone breaks are more noticeable than others because they may indicate a visible deformity, or protrude out of the skin.

Fig. 2. Illustration of the types of fractures [3]

There are many types and forms of broken bones, but doctors and surgeons follow four general classifications to determine severity and treatment.

Displaced – Displaced fractures mean the bone has broken in two or more pieces, and has moved out of alignment. A visible deformity may be present.

Non-Displaced – The bone has broken, but has not moved out of alignment (no deformity).

Closed – The fracture may be displaced or non-displaced, but it does not break through the skin.

Open – This fracture is usually the most serious, as it breaks through the skin.

How Do We Heal?
Generally, broken bones will heal incredibly well if there is sufficient treatment. The process in which the bones heal is divided into four different phases. This includes the inflammatory stage, granulation tissue formation, bony callus formation, and lastly bone remodeling.

Fig. 3. Illustration of bone healing stages [4]

The inflammatory stage occurs once the bone is broken/fractured. Blood flow to the bone and periosteum (the layer around the bone) is disturbed, resulting in blood to clot and stop excessive bleeding. This is the stage in which someone may notice swelling, redness, and pain. During this stage, many immune cells (lymphocytes, neutrophils, macrophages) gather around the broken bone and help initiate the healing process.

The granulation tissue formation occurs within two weeks of the injury. Special cells known as chondroblasts help produce cartilage around the fracture site. This acts as a framework/scaffold for the new bone to grow.

Once there is adequate cartilage formation in the fracture area, the body then enters the bony callus formation stage. Osteoblasts are the bone-building cells, and they help with creating new bone tissue. Over time, they create a bony callus and help stabilize/harden the fracture area.

By the time the bony callus formation ends, the bone is almost 100% healed. The final stage is the bone remodeling phase. This phase allows the bone to undergo a process in which it is reshaped and remodeled. Osteoclast cells help break down any excess bone that was produced during recovery, while osteoblast cells continue on gradually restoring the bone to its original shape and strength.

As technology continues to advance and new treatment methods arise, the overall healing time of fractures has improved. Physiotherapy helps with gaining strength and full range of motion, while surgical methods have been proven to help with more serious fractures. Recovery from broken bones can take time, so it’s imperative that the proper doctors are consulted and an appropriate treatment plan is created and followed.

Sources:
[1] Bone Statistics – u.osu.edu.

[2] What Are Broken Bones? – Penn Medicine

[3] Types of Fractures – Orthopedic Institute

[4] How Fractures Heal – ncbi

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Unlocking the Brain’s Response: Exploring the Impact of Social Media

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The influence of social media on our brains is intricate and far-reaching. From the exhilarating ping of a notification to the insidious erosion of our attention spans, the digital realm weaves a complex tapestry of effects that can awaken pleasure centers, rewire our focus, and even cast shadows on our self-perception. In a world where tweets and posts hold immense power, examining the multifaceted impact of social media unveils a captivating story that reveals the inner workings of our minds. In today’s world, social media has become a pervasive platform for human interaction, with both beneficial and detrimental impacts on the mind. This article delves into the complex landscape of how social media usage affects the brain, examining the cognitive and emotional aspects that underlie its impact.

Neurotransmitters and dopamine release:
Social media usage triggers and releases dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with it. This creates a pleasurable sensation similar to accomplishing a task. This pleasurable sensation can be addicting, leading to an increased reliance on social media. Thus, it reinforces the brain’s desire for rewards and can lead to addictive behavior that is identical to substance abuse. Users who receive likes, comments, and positive feedback may become compulsive about checking social media platforms to maintain the pleasurable sensation.

Neuroplasticity and Attentional Change:
Our brains have the incredible ability to adapt and change in response to our experiences. Since social media is constantly changing content, it stimulates our brains to reorganize the neural pathways related to our attention. This is known as neuroplasticity, and it allows us to quickly adapt to our environment. This adaptation is constantly challenging our brains to rewire themselves and can lead to a preference for processing short, visually appealing information. This may alter the neural circuits connected to our ability to concentrate for extended periods. As a result, we may become accustomed to brief engagements, which could make it difficult to focus on tasks that demand deep contemplation.

Social Comparison and the Brain’s Social Circuitry:
Social media can sometimes lead to negative emotions due to the constant comparison of one’s life to the curated online personas of others. This can trigger negative feelings as the brain detects disparities between reality and idealized virtual representations. As a result, the brain can activate regions linked to harmful effects, contributing to feelings of inadequacy, envy, and compromised self-esteem.

Cortisol Response:
Frequent use of social media, particularly in negative situations or comparing yourself to others, causes the brain to respond to stress. This reaction involves the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis to activate, which results in the release of stress hormones such as cortisol. This constant release of stress hormones can have detrimental effects on memory, learning, and emotional regulation. Continual exposure to upsetting content, such as unsettling news or online conflicts, can worsen stress levels and negatively impact overall well-being.

Impact on Adolescent Brain Development:
Adolescence is a crucial period for the ongoing development of the brain, especially in areas related to decision-making, impulse control, and emotional regulation. Overuse of social media during this developmental phase can interfere with the brain’s structural and functional connectivity. Heavy social media use among adolescents may result in changes to brain regions that are responsible for self-regulation and social cognition, which could potentially influence their socio-emotional development.
The fusion of social media and the brain underlines a complex connection that shapes cognitive, emotional, and developmental processes. Grasping the interplay between neurotransmitter modulation, neuroplasticity, social comparison, and stress response. In a time where social media is the norm, understanding the brain’s response to social media empowers individuals to better understand.

Sources:
The “online brain”: how the Internet may be changing our cognition – PMC (nih.gov)
How Social Media Affects Your Brain | Neuline (neulinehealth.com)
Pros & cons: impacts of social media on mental health | BMC Psychology | Full Text (biomedcentral.com)
The Influence of Social Media: How Likes and Follows Impact Our Behaviors • ComputeNepal
Social Media and the Brain (humanetech.com)

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Fight or Flight is Not Always Black and White

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The fight or flight response is a physiological response from high-stress levels or dangerous situations. It’s a natural response that can save lives. This response helps us escape danger or prepare for a physical confrontation. So you might be wondering, “How is this response activated?”

It starts with the brain, specifically the amygdala. The amygdala senses a potential threat and sends a signal to the hypothalamus. This signal activates the sympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system connects the brain to internal organs using spinal nerves. It’s responsible for responding to threats and stress. When this system is stimulated, the heart rate and blood flow to the muscles increase while blood flow to the skin decreases. A large part of this response is the hormones released, such as adrenaline and cortisol. Adrenaline is a hormone produced by your adrenal glands, and it’s quickly sent to your bloodstream. Adrenaline increases focus, which is why we are able to make quick decisions in our fight-or-flight response. Cortisol is a stress hormone that controls blood sugar levels, regulates metabolism and acts as an anti-inflammatory. The body is now prepared to respond!

During this response, your body is prioritizing anything it needs for survival. Digestion, reproductive and growth hormone production, and tissue repair are halted. Your body prioritizes what to expend its energy on.

Your sympathetic nervous system responds to danger, and your parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for maintaining homeostasis (our body’s way of maintaining overall stability). It ensures that everything in our body is running smoothly. Dr. Fisher says “[t]hink of your sympathetic and your parasympathetic nervous system like your car’s gas and brakes…[y]ou need to use both effectively for your car to run properly.” Your sympathetic system keeps you alive in danger, and your parasympathetic system relaxes your body so you can return to normal.

Source: Penn State University
In prehistoric times, we were surrounded by danger and various threats. A rustling bush, for example, could indicate that a lion is attempting to kill you. Our ancestors developed this response for our survival. There may not be immediate danger around us anymore, but we still have this instinct. This can become a problem when our fight-or-flight response gets triggered in non-threatening situations such as giving a presentation or meeting a deadline for a project. Our body reacts to these situations as if they are truly dangerous.
This response may not always be beneficial. The response can be counterproductive if the stress isn’t perceived as a real threat. This can lead to anxiety or physical symptoms like insomnia and headaches. Repeatedly activating this response can lead to chronic stress. Chronic stress may cause long-term problems that affect the heart and blood vessels. Since there is a constantly increased heart rate, there are higher levels of stress hormones and blood pressure. Our muscles can become “stuck” in a guarded state. Some triggers include fear, stress, and environmental factors like loud noises or bright lights. It’s important to learn how to manage this response. Breathing exercises are one technique to accomplish this. Deep breathing exercises activate the parasympathetic nervous system and can counteract the effects of the response. Regular exercise and physical activity can also reduce stress and improve your health.
This response can save us from potential dangers. Our body becomes prepared to respond to these stresses with the help of our nervous system. While it was helpful for our ancestors, it may also contribute to heightened stress responses in modern times. It’s important to find ways to manage our stress using healthy coping mechanisms.
Sources
Sympathetic nervous system | Definition & Function | Britannica
What Happens to Your Body During the Fight-or-Flight Response?
Cortisol | You and Your Hormones from the Society for Endocrinology
Adrenaline: Where the hormone is located & what it does
Understanding the stress response – Harvard Health
Stress effects on the body

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Continuous Learning: The Self Improvement Path with Neurological Benefits

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Whatever we think we know, there is always something new to learn and ways to improve ourselves. The journey of self-improvement is never-ending, but it’s a worthwhile one. That’s why Continuous Learning is both the answer to many questions and also a way to improve our neurological health.

Continuous Learning refers to acquiring new knowledge, skills, or experiences throughout your life. You could, for example, learn a new language, take up a new hobby, read books on various topics, attend courses or workshops, or even travel to new places to learn about different cultures. The key is to keep your mind engaged and actively seek opportunities to learn and grow.

Learning something new on a regular basis is important because it keeps your mind active and engaged, keeps you curious and open-minded, and can lead to personal and professional growth. By acquiring new knowledge, skills, or experiences, you can expand your perspective, increase your confidence, and become more adaptable to change. Exploring your interests and passions, connecting with others, and enriching your life will also be fun and rewarding.

Also, this activity can have significant neurological benefits. It can help improve cognitive function, memory, and overall brain health. Regular engagement in learning activities can also reduce the risk of age-related cognitive decline and dementia. Challenging your brain and building new neural pathways can enhance your ability to think critically, solve problems, and make decisions. So, make learning a lifelong habit and reap the many benefits it can offer for your brain and overall well-being.

A new language, a musical instrument, a new skill or hobby, a new subject or topic, a new recipe, a new exercise routine, a new game or puzzle, a new technology or software, a new culture or history, and many other things are examples of continuous learning. . The key is to push yourself and engage in enjoyable and mentally stimulating activities. You can improve your brain function and overall well-being by doing so.

References:

What is Continuous Learning? Its Importance & Benefits. https://www.valamis.com/hub/continuous-learning

Productive Use of Our Time – TPW398 – The Productive Woman. https://theproductivewoman.com/productive-use-of-our-time-tpw398/

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Aerospace Engineering: Difficult but Cool

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Have you ever wondered how humans can travel to space? Are you fascinated by the intricacies of flight and the wonders of space exploration? Do you aspire to create the next generation of aircraft or spacecraft? If so, you might be interested in space or wish to become an aerospace engineer. But first, let’s dive into this exciting profession.

Aerospace engineering is a branch of engineering that deals with designing, developing, testing, and producing aircraft and spacecraft. It involves the study of aerodynamics, propulsion systems, materials science, and structural design. Aerospace engineers create and improve aircraft and spacecraft to satisfy various requirements, such as performance, safety, and reliability. They also work on developing new technologies, such as advanced materials and propulsion systems, to enhance the capabilities of aircraft and spacecraft. Aerospace engineering is a fascinating field vital in advancing our understanding of the cosmos and our ability to explore it.
Furthermore, they work on developing advanced materials and propulsion systems to improve technology and enhance the capabilities of aircraft and spacecraft. The importance of aerospace engineering cannot be overstated, as it enables us to further our understanding of space and the world around us.

And, is it hard to study aerospace engineering? To study aerospace engineering, you must earn a bachelor’s degree. This degree program will cover various subjects such as aerodynamics, propulsion systems, materials science, and structural design. Additionally, you may be required to complete mathematics, physics, and computer science courses. Aerospace engineering, as with any field of study, can be challenging. However, with dedication and hard work, it is possible to succeed. It’s essential to stay focused on your goals and seek help when needed, whether from professors, classmates, or tutoring services. Remember, studying aerospace engineering can lead to a rewarding and exciting career, so don’t be discouraged by the challenges you may face.

Aerospace engineering is undoubtedly challenging, requiring high technical knowledge and a firm grasp of complex subject matter. Mastering this field can be daunting, with topics ranging from aerodynamics to propulsion systems and materials science. In addition, the mathematics and physics courses required for this degree program can pose significant difficulties for many students.

On the other hand, it’s cool. Aerospace engineering is a fascinating tool since it allows us to explore and understand the universe beyond our planet. The technology and innovations developed in this field have allowed us to travel to space, explore other planets, and have practical applications in transportation, communication, and defense. Additionally, the field constantly evolves and pushes the boundaries of what we thought was possible, making it an exciting and dynamic area of study and work. Overall, aerospace engineering is an incredible tool that has the potential to make a real difference in the world.

References:

Shashibaero, Author at The Article Diary. https://thearticlediary.com/author/shashibaero/

Aerospace Engineers : Occupational Outlook Handbook: : U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. https://www.bls.gov/ooh/architecture-and-engineering/aerospace-engineers.htm?source=proed.purdue.edu&medium=referral

Clarkson University Now Offers Aerospace Engineering with Advanced Curriculum | Aerospace Tech Review. https://www.aerospacetechreview.com/clarkson-university-now-offers-aerospace-engineering-with-advanced-curriculum/

Aerospace Systems Engineering: Reaching New Heights in Technology. https://www.tonex.com/aerospace-systems-engineering-reaching-new-heights-in-technology/

Aerospace engineering. https://www.career14.com/2019/05/aerospace-engineering.html

Photography by NASA

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Personality Tests and Why People Love Them

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From the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator test to those Buzzfeed questionnaires that tell you what kind of bread you are, personality tests have become an increasingly popular entertaining activity. People take these tests for various reasons, whether to get to know themselves better or to figure out what kind of person is their ‘perfect match.’ However, the accuracy and truth of personality tests are often subject to debate, mainly due to their very foundation. Despite this, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is popular among individuals and corporations.

The MBTI test sorts people into 1 of 16 personalities based on four cognitive foundations: Extraversion/Introversion, Sensing/Intuition, Thinking/Feeling, and Judging/Perceiving. The name of each personality type is an abbreviation of the four starting letters of the preferred cognitive function, e.g., ENFP.

In the 1920s, Katharine Briggs and Isabel Briggs-Myers, an American mother-daughter duo with no formal training in psychology, developed the personality test. However, the true origins of the theory behind the acclaimed test is a book written by Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, namely Psychological Types. Jung’s work was entirely theoretical and based on personal experience.

“This was before psychology was an empirical science,” says Adam Grant, a psychologist at the University of Pennsylvania. “The characteristics measured by the test have almost no predictive power on how happy you’ll be in a situation, how you’ll perform at your job, or how happy you’ll be in your marriage.”

The basis of many personality tests is inherently theoretical, not through controlled experiments or data. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator test is no exception to this common notion. Nevertheless, people are still drawn to it. It is embedded in human nature to be curious, and this curiosity drives our pursuit of knowledge. The same applies to understanding ourselves, and who we are in relation to the many individuals in this world.

That’s why we love taking personality tests.

We are enticed by the prospect of discovering something new about ourselves, whether our strengths and weaknesses or what kind of parents we will become. The kind of job that suits us best. The kind of friends that suit us best. The kind of partner that suits us best. Personality tests can also help us understand those around us better; they reinstall the connected nature of humanity.

But maybe, just maybe, there lies another reason beyond wanting to learn something new: the yearning to feel less alone. Every person on this planet leads their own life; with their own family, friends, hopes, and dreams. It’s hard not to feel lonely. Through media-like personality test results, people are reminded that others think like them. In a world so vast yet so small, there is comfort in knowing that people like you exist, even when the science behind it remains unproven.

SOURCES:
https://www.simplypsychology.org/the-myers-briggs-type-indicator.html
https://www.vox.com/2014/7/15/5881947/myers-briggs-personality-test-meaningless
https://careerassessmentsite.com/why-is-the-mbti-assessment-popular/#:~:text=People%20want%20to%20understand%20themselves.&text=Human%20identity%20and%20personality%20are,making%20sense%20of%20this%20complexity.

SOURCES:
https://www.simplypsychology.org/the-myers-briggs-type-indicator.html
https://www.vox.com/2014/7/15/5881947/myers-briggs-personality-test-meaningless
https://careerassessmentsite.com/why-is-the-mbti-assessment-popular/#:~:text=People%20want%20to%20understand%20themselves.&text=Human%20identity%20and%20personality%20are,making%20sense%20of%20this%20complexity.

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The Science Behind Dreaming

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Have you ever woken up from a bizarre dream and wondered what it meant? You wouldn’t have been the only person to do so. For centuries, people have considered the meaning of our dreams.

Sleeping

Every night, our bodies need to recover from the day’s obstacles in order to improve our performance, mood, and overall health for the following day. But did you know that even as you sleep, your brain still performs all sorts of activities? As you sleep the night away, your brain progresses through different sleep cycle stages: REM (rapid eye movement) and NREM (non-rapid eye movement). When you first fall asleep, you experience the light sleep of the Stage 1 NREM phase, characterized by slowing brain activities. It is fairly easy to wake up from this stage of sleep, often without noticing that you have fallen asleep in the first place. However, if uninterrupted, a person progresses to the second stage of the sleep cycle: Stage 2 of NREM. In this stage, the body starts to cool down, the muscles relax, and the breathing/heart rate slows. The last stage of NREM is deep sleep. 

After the period of non-rapid eye movement is over, REM takes place. In this stage, you experience atonia, which is the temporary paralysis of your body, except for your eyes and breathing mechanisms. Your body does this to prevent you from reenacting your dreams. Other than dreams, nightmares also occur in this stage of sleep. 

Dreams

Did you know everyone is thought to have between 3 to 6 dreams every night? This phenomenon begs the question: Why do we dream in the first place? 

Despite centuries of research and attempts at figuring out the answer to this question, we still do not have a clear answer. However, a popular theory is that dreams aid with memory consolidation. Deep NREM sleep helps in the consolidation and strengthening of individual memories. Moreover, dreaming and sleeping, in general, allow these memories to come together, allowing for greater creativity and problem-solving. A study by Greater Good Magazine tested this idea by waking up participants during NREM and REM stages. They were given anagram puzzles and had to unscramble letters to form a word. When woken up at a later interval during NREM sleep (which is when humans do not experience dreaming), participants were less creative compared to when they were woken up during REM (dreaming stage) sleep. 

While much research has been and continues to be done, we still have many questions about dreaming that are yet to be answered. What we do know, however, is that sleep leads to many health benefits when done appropriately, such as restoring mood, healthy weight, reduced stress, lower chances of significant health problems, better memory, and many more. So, the next time you encounter a challenging situation, think back to the good old saying and sleep on it.

https://www.sleepfoundation.org/dreams

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/284378#_noHeaderPrefixedContent

https://newsinhealth.nih.gov/2013/04/sleep-it

https://health.gov/myhealthfinder/healthy-living/mental-health-and-relationships/get-enough-sleep

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-science-behind-dreaming/

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Tinnitus: Never-ending Noise

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Hearing is one of our five senses, making our ears a vital part of our body. The ear consists of three parts: the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. When the outer ear picks up a sound, it travels through the external auditory canal and hits the eardrum, which then vibrates. These vibrations travel to three bones in the middle ear, known as the ossicles, where the sound gets amplified. Finally, the waves reach the cochlea in the inner ear and get converted into electrical impulses, which the brain translates into sound.  

This process is necessary for everyday life. Unfortunately, due to the delicate nature of the ear, this process can easily be disrupted. For example, exposure to loud sounds can damage the ears’ nerves, causing hearing loss. However, this can also cause something else: tinnitus. 

Tinnitus is the result of damage to the inner ear. Repetitive exposure to loud noise damages the tiny hair cells in the cochlea, which are responsible for sending electrical impulses to the brain. When the cells are bent or broken, they transmit random, spontaneous signals to the brain. The brain receives them and creates phantom noises – sounds only in the head with no external source.

Most cases of tinnitus are caused by hearing loss, which often happens as people age. 24% of people aged 65 and above have tinnitus. However, hearing loss can be accelerated by frequently being in an environment with loud sounds. These environments range from construction sites to blasting music through headphones. 18 – 29% of youth worldwide subject themselves to dangerous volume levels daily. 

Tinnitus can cause different kinds of phantom noises: ringing, buzzing, roaring, clicking, hissing, and humming in the ears. It can be present all the time or come and go. It can be in one ear or both. It can be loud or soft. 

Tinnitus may vary from person to person, but no matter how it presents, it proves to be unpleasant.

About 750 million people around the world have tinnitus. Most people with it lament that they can’t have silence anymore. The constant sound in their ears can even cause anxiety and depression. Some use background noise, such as TV or music, to drown out the noise. Tinnitus can be ignored sometimes, but the cold, hard truth is that tinnitus is permanent. There is no cure. 

So, the best method of protection is prevention. Tone down the volume of your music when you use headphones. Wear earplugs when you’re in a loud environment like a concert. Regularly exercise and eat healthy to prevent tinnitus caused by obesity or blood vessel disorders.

Figure 2: Loop Experience Earplugs, a popular and comfortable form of noise protection

The world has gotten louder. Noise surrounds us constantly, and it can be hard to get a moment of silence. By protecting your ears, you protect your peace as well. 

Sources: 

Inner Ear: Anatomy & Function

Anatomy and Physiology of the Ear

Tinnitus – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

Tinnitus | NHS inform

Living a normal life with tinnitus | Duke Health 

What is Tinnitus? 

Loud music may be damaging ears of 1 billion young people, study says 

The 4 Best Earplugs for Concerts of 2023 | Reviews by Wirecutter 

Why Everything Is Getting Louder 

https://m.media-amazon.com/images/I/51XWq+KyMiL._AC_SY300_SX300_.jpg

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The Brain’s 4 Happy Hormones: Serotonin, Dopamine, Endorphins and Oxytocin

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I. Introduction: Brief Overview of Neurotransmitters and Their Role in Brain Function.

That amazing feeling after a good workout, the pure joy that washes over your body when you finally achieve that long-awaited goal, a comforting embrace from a loved one that instantly fills your heart with warmth, or the laughter that leaves your belly aching; behind all of those remarkable moments lies a group of neurotransmitters, which are often referred to as the brain’s “happy hormones.” This little group of chemicals – serotonin, dopamine, endorphins, and oxytocin – play a crucial role in shaping our emotions, behaviours and overall well-being. They hold the key behind the best moments in our lives that are filled with joy, contentment, and excitement. Each plays a unique part in the grand performance of human emotion. We’ll dive into the science behind these neurotransmitters, exploring their origins, functions, and the fascinating interplay between them. As we peel back the layers of their influence, we’ll discover how they contribute to our experiences of joy, resilience, and human connection.

II. Serotonin: The Brain’s Manager.

Serotonin functions as a messenger between the brain and throughout the body. It facilitates communication between nerve cells (neurons) in the brain and other body regions. A lack of enough serotonin can play a role in depression, anxiety, mania, and other health conditions.

Additionally, it has a wide range of functions that contribute to various aspects of our mental and emotional well-being.

– It is best known for its role in mood regulation, where it helps stabilise emotions and promotes a sense of calmness and contentment. When serotonin is at normal levels, you feel much more stable, happier, and calmer. However, as mentioned before, lower levels are associated with mood disorders.

– It also regulates your sleep. It helps tell your body when it’s time to rest and wake up. Serotonin also plays an important role in the quality of your sleep.

– It influences both appetite and digestion as 90% of the serotonin resides in the gut, which is then released into your blood circulation and absorbed by platelets.

Serotonin is scientifically known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT). Once it is released from our neurons, serotonin binds to specific receptor sites on the surfaces of target cells. These receptors are called serotonin receptors, and there are multiple subtypes with different functions. The binding of serotonin to its receptors triggers a cascade of biochemical reactions inside the target cells, leading to specific physiological and behavioral responses. 

III. Dopamine: The Main Star.

Imagine you could hit a button every time you want to feel happy or motivated. This is dopamine, except it’s not a button that you can call whenever you want, but rather something that appears as a result of doing things you enjoy. For example, when we finally achieve that one goal we have been working for all year, dopamine is the pat on the back that tells us, “Great job! You did something awesome!”, making us feel excited and proud. 

It acts as a motivator, encouraging us to seek out activities that bring joy and satisfaction. Dopamine helps us anticipate and achieve rewards, which can range from the simple pleasure of eating something delicious to the sense of accomplishment that comes after solving a challenging problem. It’s the force that drives us to pursue our goals, experience pleasure, and keep pushing forward. Proper dopamine function is essential for maintaining a healthy level of motivation and engagement with the world around us.

It is easy to mistake the roles of dopamine and serotonin as they both play a crucial role in our overall mental well-being. While dopamine focuses on the excitement of rewards, serotonin works alongside dopamine to maintain emotional stability. Thus, while dopamine is associated with excitement and rewards, serotonin helps keep these feelings in balance, preventing extremes. Think of dopamine as the “I did it!” feeling after a big achievement, while serotonin provides a steady sense of well-being.

IV. Endorphins: The Superheroes.

In comics, whenever there are “bad guys,” there are usually superheroes that defeat them. In this case, endorphins are the superheroes in our brains. They act as a shield against pain, whether physical or emotional, and create a sense of euphoria that leaves us feeling uplifted and joyful.

They’re a group of natural chemicals known to play a vital role in pain regulation and stress response. When the body experiences stress or pain, endorphins are released to help alleviate discomfort and promote a sense of well-being.

The word “endorphins” is a combination of “endogenous” (originating within the body) and “morphine” (a powerful pain-relieving medication). They’re released by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in response to pain or stress.

V. Oxytocin: The Love Fairy.

Oxytocin, often referred to as the “bonding hormone” or “love hormone,” is a remarkable neurotransmitter produced in the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland. It’s known for its pivotal role in creating emotional bonds, fostering trust, and enhancing social connections. It is what enhances feelings of empathy and emotional understanding, which deepen our relationships.

Not only does oxytocin make us feel close to our loved ones, but it also encourages kindness. When we do something nice for someone, like sharing a toy or helping someone in need, our brain releases even more oxytocin. It’s almost like a reward for being a good friend and spreading kindness around. 

VI. Conclusion: Why Are Each of Them Important?

These unique happy hormones each play a vital role in our mental well-being and life enrichment. With serotonin, it ensures the steady course of our inner world. By maintaining emotional equilibrium and fostering a sense of contentment, serotonin establishes the foundation upon which our emotional well-being thrives.

With dopamine, it fuels our motivation, sparks excitement, and celebrates our achievements. It encourages us to pursue our aspirations with zeal and to celebrate our accomplishments, no matter their scale. It instills life with a vibrant energy that beckons us to cherish the thrill of every moment.

Endorphin is the body’s shield, which keeps us going during the dark days. 

Oxytocin is the bonding force that connects us to loved ones. Its significance lies in nurturing connections, building trust, and fostering empathy. It shows us that our interactions with loved ones, the warmth of a hug, and the joy of shared laughter are the true gems of life. It reminds us that our capacity to care and connect is a source of endless joy and fulfilment.

You can boost levels of these hormones with small lifestyle changes, such as diet, exercise, and meditation. With just simple and intentional choices, like a leisurely stroll in the park or a heartfelt conversation with a friend, these happy hormones can be nudged into action, enriching our lives with moments of genuine happiness. So, as you navigate the beautiful journey of life, remember that within you reside the architects of joy – serotonin, dopamine, endorphins, and oxytocin. 

Sources:

https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/serotonin-the-natural-mood-booster

https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/oxytocin-the-love-hormone

https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/endorphins-the-brains-natural-pain-reliever

https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/feel-good-hormones-how-they-affect-your-mind-mood-and-body

https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/dopamine-the-pathway-to-pleasure

https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/dopamine-the-pathway-to-pleasure

https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/family-resources-education/700childrens/2023/02/dopamine-and-serotonin#:~:text=Serotonin%2C%20while%20similar%20to%20dopamine,metabolism%2C%20emotions%20and%20even%20sleep!

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22572-serotonin#:~:text=Serotonin%20is%20a%20chemical%20that,blood%20clotting%20and%20sexual%20desire.

https://villagepipol.com/

Retrograde-vs-Anterograde-Amnesia-1366-×-650px (1)

A Journey Into Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia

by with No Comment Blog

Imagine this. You were riding on your bike. It was quiet and peaceful, with a light breeze blowing through your hair… BUT THEN BAM! You tumble to the ground, hitting your head hard on a rock. A couple hours later you realize, hmm, “I don’t remember what I had for breakfast today.”

You are most likely experiencing retrograde amnesia as a result of the beginning of damage. Retrograde amnesia is an interesting idea that is frequently coupled with anterograde amnesia. To summarize retrograde amnesia, it is simply the inability to recall memories prior to the start of amnesia or the injury/illness. Anterograde amnesia is defined as the inability to form new long-term memories.

Let’s begin with anterograde amnesia first! Anterograde amnesia can be caused by a wide variety of causes – it can be caused by age-related brain diseases (like Alzheimer’s disease) or brain injury (like the fall in the first paragraph). It can also be caused by stroke, epilepsy, seizures, brain aneurysms, brain tumors, and more. Anterograde amnesia truly has a wide range of causes.

Before we move into the neuroscience of anterograde amnesia, we should cover some of the symptoms of anterograde amnesia – after all, application is important! Anterograde amnesia can manifest in a myriad of ways, it can manifest as forgetting conversations, forgetting the names and faces of other people, confusion or disorientation about current events, headaches, issues with speaking, writing, reading, etc. While this is a more generalized list of symptoms, the symptoms may change depending on what is the cause.


Before we cover the actual neuroscience of anterograde amnesia, it’s important to cover how memory works. Memory can be stored in many different ways, but two important ways are explicit and implicit memory. Explicit memory can be stored as semantic memory and episodic memory. Semantic memory is just remembering a fact, but episodic memory is more so remembering the experience. Implicit memories are things like habits or basic life skills that the individual uses every day. Examples would be riding a bike, tying shoes, or swimming. Anterograde amnesia is associated with being unable to make long-term memories, not being unable to make memories at all! In some cases, memories are made, it is just that it is overwritten by whatever memory comes next. This process is called retroactive interference. Anterograde amnesia is caused by damage to the hippocampus as that is the memory center of the brain.

Next, let’s cover retrograde amnesia. Retrograde amnesia can be caused by traumatic brain injury, a thiamine deficiency, encephalitis, Alzheimer’s disease, stroke, seizures, and cardiac arrest. Mainly, retrograde amnesia affects the emotion and memory centers of the brain, the thalamus and hippocampus. Some symptoms of retrograde amnesia are not remembering previous events, forgetting information from before the onset of amnesia, remembering previously learned skills, and keeping older memories.

One important fact to note is that retrograde and anterograde amnesia rarely occur on their own – they mostly occur together! Research has shown that anterograde and retrograde amnesia are positively correlated – as one increases, so does the other. Another interesting fact that research has found is that anterograde amnesia needs to reach a severity threshold before retrograde amnesia begins to manifest. It is easier to disrupt learning ability than to disrupt already learned memories.

The distinction between retrograde and anterograde amnesia is critical in both clinical and scientific settings. Since they both occur after traumatic brain injury, not being able to remember key aspects of an individual’s life after these events could be emotionally distressing to the individual. It is important to remember that, while these two conditions are not chronic (most of the time), they can still have significant consequences.

Sources:
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23221-anterograde-amnesia#:~:text=Degenerative%20brain%20conditions%20like%20Alzheimer’s,brain%20deteriorate%20and%20stop%20working.


https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3837701/#:~:text=Anterograde%20amnesia%20(AA)%20refers%20to,before%20the%20onset%20of%20amnesia.
https://www.brain-injury-law-center.com/blog/traumatic-brain-injury-and-anterograde-amnesia/#:~:text=Damage%20to%20the%20hippocampus%20seems%20to%20be%20most%20responsible%20for%20anterograde%20amnesia.&text=Traumatic%20brain%20injury%20is%20a,or%20more%20is%20often%20fatal.
https://www.osmosis.org/answers/hippocampus#:~:text=The%20hippocampus%20is%20involved%20in,to%20the%20objects%20around%20them.
https://www.healthline.com/health/amnesia/anterograde-amnesia#causes
https://www.healthline.com/health/retrograde-amnesia#types-and-symptoms

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