Biology - Project Cleris

The Rise of Probiotics: The Impact of Gut Bacteria on the Immune System

November 5, 2024

by Project Cleris with No Comment Article

Introduction

Probiotics–defined as live microorganisms that offer health benefits–have gained significant attention for their potential to improve gut health and support the immune system. These beneficial bacteria are primarily found in fermented foods and supplements, playing a crucial role in maintaining balance within the gut microbiota. In other words, they can impact the immune system’s function. The intricate relationship between the gut and the immune system is crucial, as around 70% of the body’s lymphocytes (a type of white blood cells crucial for the immune system) reside in the gastrointestinal tract. Although many studies show their beneficial effects on the human body, there is a lack of definitive evidence supporting the benefits of specific strains of bacteria or probiotic dosages. As a result, this article will discuss the effects of probiotics on the immune system, highlighting their role in reducing the risk of infections, allergies, and autoimmune conditions.

Gut Microbiota

The gut microbiota is a system of trillions of microorganisms within the human gastrointestinal tract. This system contains bacteria, fungi, and viruses, with bacteria being particularly influential on health. The gut microbiota plays a crucial role in interacting with the innate and adaptive immune system, maintaining homeostasis and preventing inflammation. It helps with digestion, vitamin production, protection against harmful pathogens, and the creation of fatty acids that facilitate communication between the gut and immune cells. The gut epithelial cells form a mucosal barrier to separate the microbiota and the immune cells to prevent harmful substances from entering the bloodstream. If the interaction between gut bacteria and the immune system is disrupted, harmful bacteria called “Gram-negative bacteria” grow and damage the mucosal barrier, leading to infections and increased intestinal permeability.

Additionally, when the gut microbiota becomes imbalanced (gut dysbiosis) with increased harmful bacteria, it negatively impacts the immune system, causing inflammation, oxidative stress, and insulin resistance. Gut dysbiosis is caused by various factors, including the use of antibiotics and antimicrobial agents, drugs, smoking and alcohol, physical and psychological stress, chronic inflammation, and an unbalanced diet. Over time, chronic dysbiosis can lead to long-term conditions such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory bowel diseases, autoimmune disorders, and certain cancers. Probiotics play a significant role in the gut microbiota composition, which can inhibit the growth of harmful bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract. As a result, it helps the host build a healthy intestinal mucosa protective layer, decrease permeability, and enhance the immune system.

How probiotics interact with the immune system

Probiotics can strengthen the gut barrier, preventing harmful pathogens from entering. They interact with special immune cells in the gastrointestinal tract, such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and T and B lymphocytes. They also interact with the host’s intestinal cells at the surface of the intestinal barrier, including the intestinal epithelium and underlying lamina propria.

When consuming food with probiotics, they adhere to intestinal epithelial cells and send signals to the immune cells by Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRRs). Cytokines, which are stimulated by probiotic bacteria, activate T-regulatory (Treg) cells, maintaining immune homeostasis in the intestinal mucosa. Treg cells help suppress a strong immune response, which could lead to problems such as allergies (where there is a strong immune response to harmless substances causing allergic reactions). There are specialized enterocytes (specialized cells that line the inner surface of the small intestine and play a crucial role in nutrient absorption) called “Microfold cells” (M cells), which act as messengers and transporters, passing information about harmful bacteria to immune cells and transferring intestinal antigens to dendritic cells. Depending on the situation, the intestinal Dendritic cells activate Th1, Th2, or Th17 immune responses.

Th1 immune response is responsible for fighting intracellular pathogens such as viruses and bacteria, activating macrophages to kill infected cells.

Th2 defends against extracellular parasites and handles allergies, activating B cells to produce antibodies (IgE) for defense.

Th17 targets extracellular bacteria and fungi, activating neutrophils (the most abundant type of white blood cell in the innate immune system) to increase inflammation and fight infection.

Additionally, probiotics induce the maturation of B cells, to create IgA antibodies, which then produce plasma cells that stick to germs to present bacterial adhesion to the host’s tissues.

Benefits of Probiotics on Immune and Human Health

Probiotics are mainly Gram-positive bacteria, including species belonging to the Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium genre, such as Escherichia coli, Enterococcus, Pediococcus, and Yeast species. They have several beneficial effects, such as ameliorating innate immune responses and related anti-pathogenic/inflammatory activities, improving the absorption of beneficial nutrients, and decreasing food intolerance.

They also inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria by synthesizing compounds with low molecular weight, such as acetic and lactic acids and “bacteriocins, ” which are antimicrobial compounds with large molecular weights. Bacteriocins produced by probiotics include lactacin B from L. acidophilus, Bifidocin B from Bifidobacterium bifidum NCFB, plantaricin from L. plantarum, and nisin from Lactococcus lactis. These compounds have shown inhibitory effects against Gram-negative pathogens, such as H.pylori.

The gut barrier is essential for separating the gut bacteria and the body. Mucus is a secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA), an antibody that plays a critical role in the immune system at the mucosal sites. The sIgA produces plasma cells in the intestinal tissues and transports antibodies across the intestinal epithelial cells into the gut lumen. The antibody binds to pathogens and toxins, preventing them from causing harm through immune exclusion, a non-inflammatory response. Probiotics have been shown to increase the number of sIgA-producing cells in the gut and other mucosal areas, such as the bronchus and mammary glands, exhibiting how probiotics can enhance the immune response by prompting the production of sIgA.

Conclusion

Probiotics play a critical role in modulating the gut microbiota, positively impacting the immune system. Their interactions with various immune cells help maintain immune homeostasis, strengthen gut barriers, and enhance the body’s ability to fight against infections, allergies, and autoimmune disorders. Although the effectiveness of specific probiotic strains and optimal dosages are still being researched, current evidence demonstrates their ability to support innate and adaptive immunity. A deeper understanding of the gut-immune relationship can contribute to multi-faceted approaches involving probiotics, which have considerable promise in preventing immune disorders, potentially enabling more targeted therapeutic applications.

Sources:
Cleveland Clinic. (2024, April 16). What Is Gut Dysbiosis? Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/dysbiosis
Gourbeyre, P., Denery, S., & Bodinier, M. (2011). Probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics: impact on the gut immune system and allergic reactions. Journal of Leukocyte Biology, 89(5), 685–695. https://doi.org/10.1189/jlb.1109753
Liu, Y., Wang, J., & Wu, C. (2022). Modulation of Gut Microbiota and Immune System by Probiotics, Pre-biotics, and Post-biotics. Frontiers in Nutrition, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2021.634897
Maldonado Galdeano, C., Cazorla, S., Lemme Dumit, J., Vélez, E., & Perdigón, G. (2019). Beneficial Effects of Probiotic Consumption on the Immune System. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 74(2), 115–124. https://doi.org/10.1159/000496426
Mazziotta, C., Tognon, M., Martini, F., Torreggiani, E., & Rotondo, J. C. (2023). Probiotics Mechanism of Action on Immune Cells and Beneficial Effects on Human Health. Cells, 12(1), 184. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells12010184
Wang, X., Zhang, P., & Zhang, X. (2021). Probiotics Regulate Gut Microbiota: An Effective Method to Improve Immunity. Molecules, 26(19), 6076. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26196076
Yoo, J., Groer, M., Dutra, S., Sarkar, A., & McSkimming, D. (2020). Gut Microbiota and Immune System Interactions. Microorganisms, 8(10), 1587. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8101587 (Figure 1)

Molecular Discovery: Exploring the Implications of Digital Chemistry on Drug Development

October 14, 2024

by Project Cleris with No Comment Article

Introduction

Humans have identified, synthesized, and even tested millions of molecules thus far. However, out of the near-infinite possibilities, only a small fraction of molecules have been discovered thus far. But what if it was possible to exponentially accelerate this process?

Current System

Generally, drug discovery is a long, arduous process; while thousands of molecular compounds and existing treatments are tested on a disease based on new insights, barely any are chosen for additional analysis. More specifically, approximately 10,000 drugs are tested, on average, in the discovery stage. Of this, around 250 continue to the preclinical stage, and only about 5 are deemed ready for further analysis in the clinical trials.

Therefore, with this current process, there is an approximate 0.05% chance of discovering a possibly effective drug. Even so, of the scarce amount that pass to the clinical trials, even fewer advance beyond that stage to reach commercial availability. With an average success rate of drugs in clinical trials at approximately 11.1%, it can be reasonably inferred that a staggeringly low 0.005%, or 1 in 20,000 molecules tested become an actual product.

Despite the current model’s inefficiency, until very recently there were no better alternatives. To put it into perspective, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) currently uses the previously described selective method. In the past few years, a more productive option has begun to emerge – artificial intelligence.

Digital Chemistry

In a 2022 MIT study, a machine learning model was trained to suggest molecular structures that have certain properties and can be synthesized. By feeding the model with a multitude of molecules, elements, and reactions that take place to form its structure, the model learns to synthesize desired molecules independently. The trained model is then inputted with a set of “building blocks” to create a molecule (list of chemicals and their possible reactions) to restrain the search to what is possible; then, a decision tree is employed to find the final molecule. Although the model is still in development, this methodology could revolutionize the drug discovery process, and open up doors for limitless innovation in the future.

Figure 3: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322585810_Enhancement_of_the_thermal_and_alkaline_pH_stability_of_Escherichia_coli_lysine_decarboxylase_for_efficient_cadaverine_production

One company that has also worked on utilizing artificial intelligence in drug development considerably, and currently holds the title for the “leading computational platform for molecular discovery and design” is Schrödinger. With a working procedure for molecular discovery, and several patents, this company has developed molecules that have passed the preclinical stage, and could likely be effective in treating diseases. For example, the drug SGR-1505 blocks a protein called MALT1, which is involved in growth of B-cell lymphomas (cancers of the immune system) and therefore, could be a promising way to treat those cancers. This drug was discovered through machine learning methods, and serves as a testament to the extent of the possibility in this field.

Conclusion

Traditional drug discovery, although foundational, is an extremely tedious and inefficient process that has considerable potential for improvement. To reduce the time and resources involved with this system, using machine learning procedures can significantly reduce the effort necessary to successfully achieve molecular discovery. Despite the old system still being in use, digital chemistry’s integration of machine learning and AI can potentially redefine the field entirely – a new era.

Sources:

https://news.mit.edu/2022/ai-molecules-new-drugs-0426
https://www.schrodinger.com/platform/
https://www.schrodinger.com/pipeline/malt1/
https://www.schrodinger.com/pipeline/
https://ftloscience.com/ai-in-drug-discovery-chemical-synthesis/
https://www.fda.gov/patients/drug-development-process/step-1-discovery-and-development
https://www.cardinalpeak.com/blog/best-practices-when-training-machine-learning-models
https://meilerlab.org/drug-discovery-design/

Artificial Intelligence – Building the Future

March 31, 2024

by Project Cleris with No Comment Blog

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a newly emerging dynamic field that is greatly helping in creating technological advancements for the future. You may have heard about AI, but what exactly is it? In this article we will aim to inform, address, and understand the relevance and importance of AI in today’s world.

At its simplest, AI refers to the development of computer systems that can perform tasks that typically require human intelligence. This encompasses a broad spectrum of capabilities such as speech recognition, image processing, problem-solving, and decision-making. The overarching goal of AI is to create machines that mimic human intelligence and adapt to various scenarios.

When we consider the potential applications of AI, a window of innovation is opened. AI has been progressively worked on and developed for the past 40 years, but it wasn’t until recently that breakthroughs have been made. For example, Apple’s Siri was first released in 2011 and took nearly 2 decades to create. Siri’s voice analysis and response features showcase one of the most beneficial uses of artificial intelligence.

Well, why should we care? How is this relevant in today’s world? Though AI does serve its benefits and potentially helpful uses, AI has also proven to be somewhat of an issue. One key concern in today’s world is AI’s effect on the workforce. It is estimated that by 2030 AI could replace up to the equivalent of 300 million full-time jobs globally. These jobs could include things like customer service, research and data analysis, retail jobs, and accounting/data management. However as AI continues to evolve, it also may open up a variety of unprecedented career pathways. This includes occupations such as cybersecurity management, machine learning engineers, and healthcare professions surrounding AI integration and development.

To conclude, AI and its potential is still somewhat unknown. As AI continues to evolve, it is important that we stay informed and up to date on its advancements in today’s world.

Sources:

https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/feature/Top-AI-jobs
https://www.nexford.edu/insights/how-will-ai-affect-jobs
https://www.lifewire.com/positive-impacts-of-ai-7514777
https://builtin.com/artificial-intelligence

TDP-43: An Essential Protein in Alzheimer’s Disease

March 16, 2024

by Project Cleris with No Comment Blog

Alzheimer’s is a deadly disease, claiming 121,499 lives in the U.S., making it the sixth-leading cause of death in the country. Alzheimer’s is a neurodegenerative disease caused by the degeneration of neurons in brain areas related to cognition. The initial symptoms often include memory, language, and thinking difficulties. Daily living can become extremely difficult for individuals with Alzheimer’s, and they may also have changes in mood, personality, and behavior, which vary among individuals.

TDP-43 in Cognitive Abilities

At the molecular level, the accumulation of beta-amyloid proteins outside the neurons and tau proteins inside neurons are significant characteristics of the disease. This accumulation can lead to inflammation and brain tissue atrophy, atrophy contributing to neuronal death. Dementia, a condition commonly found in Alzheimer’s patients, involves a decline in cognitive abilities such as memory loss, difficulty in reasoning, and impaired communication skills. It significantly affects a person’s ability to perform daily tasks independently.

Molecular composition of TDP-43

As toxic beta-amyloid proteins and tau proteins accumulate, microglia, specialized cells in the brain, activate (feel free to check out our other article on microglia!) to clear away debris from dying cells. This process, however, can lead to inflammation when microglia struggle to keep up. A crucial protein involved in Alzheimer’s is TDP-43, a transactive response DNA binding protein of 43 kDa, which is encoded by the TARDBP gene. TDP-43, in its normal state, is involved with RNA processing, brain stability, and gene regulation. When TDP-43 is phosphorylated and truncated (shortened and phosphate groups are added), it becomes linked to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. In Alzheimer’s, TDP-43 forms neurofibrillary tangles, contributing to the disease’s progression and cognitive decline.TDP-43, a nuclear ribonucleoprotein, influences mRNA levels, including tau expression. Dysregulation of atu leads to its aggregation, a hallmark of Alzheimer’s. Mutations affecting TDP-43’s nuclear localization sequence cause mislocalization, and new drugs are being created to target this sequence.
Depletion of TDP-43 in the nucleus results in cytoplasmic aggregation, which is what causes Alzheimer’s. Understanding TDP-43 may offer insights into potential Alzheimer’s treatments.

Sources:

https://molecularneurodegeneration.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13024-021-00503-x
https://alz-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/alz.13016#:~:text=This%20number%20could%20grow%20to,death%20in%20the%20United%20States.

STEM Cells: The Key to Healing Horizons

February 3, 2024

by Project Cleris with No Comment Blog

Do you know why certain organs and tissues regenerate? When you have a small
scrape or cut, the tissue regenerates in a matter of days or months, sometimes
leaving a small scar or remaining intact as before the accident.

This is due to stem cells, the body’s raw material; from them, all other cells with specialized functions are generated. Under the right conditions in the body or a laboratory, stem cells divide to form more cells: daughter or embryonic cells. (Células madre: qué son y qué hacen, 2022)

But to enhance understanding, here is a table with key differences between cells.

	Célula Madre	Célula Embrionaria
Origin	Found in adult tissues such as bone marrow or fat	Found in developing embryos
Differentiation	It can differentiate into specific cells depending on its origin	It has the potential to differentiate into any type of cell
Obtaining Method	Obtained from adult tissues through less invasive procedures such as bone marrow aspiration	Obtained from developing embryos, which has raised ethical concerns and logistical challenges
Limitations	Limited differentiation potential compared to embryonic cells	Higher differentiation potential, making them versatile for cell regeneration
Rejection Risk	Lower rejection risk in transplants, since the cells come from the patient	Higher rejection risk, since the cells come from a different donor
Common Uses	Widely used in medical treatments (bone marrow transplants and regenerative therapies)	Explored in research and clinical trials to treat various diseases and injuries

Specific Examples in Daily Life

Stem cell therapies offer hope for those seeking more effective, less invasive
treatments. The ability of these cells to regenerate damaged tissues poses exciting prospects for improving the quality of life, especially for those facing chronic medical challenges.

Also, in the area of beauty and skin care, including stem cell derivatives in cosmetic
products open a new chapter in the science of skin health. While their
practical application is still in development, ongoing research promises to reveal
more about the rejuvenating potential of these innovative solutions.

Finally, stem cells continue to push the boundaries of what is possible in medicine and aesthetics. As we advance in this era of scientific discoveries, it is clear that stem cells are not only protagonists in the laboratory but also in the tangible improvement of our everyday lives. Their regenerative potential offers a promising vision of the future, where healing and renewal may be more accessible than ever.

References:

Células madre: qué son y qué hacen. (2022, 18 mayo). Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/es/tests-procedures/bone-marrow-transplant/in-depth/stem-cells/art-20048117
National Library of Medicine. (s. f.). Células madre. https://medlineplus.gov/spanish/stemcells.html
Células madre – Instituto de Traumatología Estévez. (2020, 15 septiembre). Instituto de Traumatología Estévez. https://www.traumatologiaestevez.es/tratamientos-alternativos/celulas-madre/
Millet, A. (2016, 13 marzo). Células madre: puesta al día de los últimos avances. Clínica Millet | Clínica de la Mujer. https://clinicamillet.es/blog/celulas-madre-puesta-al-dia-de-los-ultimos-avances/
Osorio, U. R. (2022, 4 febrero). Tipos de células madre. ecologiaverde.com. https://www.ecologiaverde.com/tipos-de-celulas-madre-3749.html
Cover image by: BBC

The Importance of Sleep for Teens: Impacting The Bigger Picture

January 27, 2024

by Project Cleris with No Comment Blog

Teenagers and Sleep Schedules:

In the chaos of teenage life, quality sleep often takes a back seat… With packed schedules of activities like sports, schoolwork, and social events, teens often get subpar sleep without even realizing it. In this article, we will discuss how sleep affects overall health, including physical and cognitive well-being.

What the Experts Say:

Sleep is a crucial factor for our functioning, providing rejuvenation and body repair. Since sleep is crucial to growth and development, it is especially critical for young children and teenagers. The American Academy of Sleep Medicine recommends 8-10 hours of daily sleep for teenagers aged 13-18.

Why it Matters:

Sufficient and high-quality sleep is crucial for overall well-being. The body heals, unwinds, and regenerates itself effectively when it receives regular, long-term rest. Adequate sleep, ideally 8-10 hours, plays a role in hormone regulation, supports growth, and bolsters the immune system. Apart from that, quality sleep contributes to disease prevention, including conditions like heart disease and metabolic disorders linked with obesity. Establishing good sleep habits, such as turning off phones before bedtime and managing time effectively, is essential for promoting these benefits. Exposure to blue light before bedtime disrupts the body’s circadian cycle, deceiving it into believing it’s daylight.

Tips for Better Sleep:

Getting quality sleep is a common challenge for many teenagers. A recent study reveals that almost 70% of all teens lack sufficient sleep on school nights. However, with appropriate adjustments, quality sleep is achievable. Turning off your phone an hour before sleeping, improving time management, and creating daily sleep schedules are all things that contribute to developing healthy sleep habits.

In summary, sleep is crucial in maintaining good health. Everyone, especially teens, should work to prioritize sleep, as it is a fundamental pillar in every aspect of life. Making the smallest changes can create the biggest differences! A good sleep is a good you.

Sources:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4651462/https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/features/students-sleep.htm
https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/features/students-sleep.htm#:~:text=How%20much%20sleep%20someone%20needs,10%20hours%20per%2024%20hours.
https://childmind.org/article/happens-teenagers-dont-get-enough-sleep/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4651462/#:~:text=There%20are%20many%20consequences%20of,normally%20%5B8%2C9%5D.
https://childmind.org/article/happens-teenagers-dont-get-enough-sleep/#:~:text=Teens%20need%20nine%20hours%20of,teens%20don’t%20get%20that.
Figure 1: A breakdown of the benefits of deep sleep

The Curious Case of Phineas Gage: Paving The Way for Neuroscience

January 20, 2024

by Project Cleris with 2 Comments Blog

Picture this: It’s September 13, 1848, and in the quiet town of Cavendish, Vermont, a 25-year-old named Phineas Gage is immersed in the routine work of a railroad foreman. Engaged in the meticulous task of preparing a railroad bed, Gage handles an iron tamping rod with practiced hands, packing explosive powder into the ground. Little did he know that the trajectory of that iron rod would alter the course of his life, and end up providing insight into the functions of the human brain for years to come.

As the explosive powder detonated due to the friction, the rod was launched into his left cheek, destroying his eye. It made its way through the left front of the brain before exiting the skull from the right side. However, despite such an intense accident, Gage was still able to walk and talk while looking for medical assistance. During his recovery, Gage was treated by a number of medical professionals, including Dr. John Harlow, who would report the case in the Boston Medical Surgery Journal.

However, what truly made the case of Phineas Gage so remarkable and relevant in the history of various fields like psychology and neuroscience was not only his ability to survive a seemingly fatal injury but how this accident had changed him on a mental and emotional plane. Prior to the accident, coworkers, friends, and family of Phineas Gage described him to be hardworking, energetic, and pleasant. After the accident, they went as far as saying that he was “no longer Gage”. His irritable manner resulted in him losing his job. In the later years of his life, his personality would return to the way it was, signaling that healing in the frontal lobe could reverse personality changes. The primary area of injury in Gage’s accident was the frontal lobe; At the time, the frontal lobes were ‘considered silent structures, without function and unrelated to human behaviour.’ so the fact that only his personality was changed led early neurologists to alter their current understanding of the brain’s localisation of function.

The concept of the localisation of function in the brain refers to the idea that specific cognitive and behavioural functions are associated with particular regions or areas within the brain. This principle suggests that different parts of the brain are responsible for different functions, and damage to or stimulation of specific areas can result in predictable changes in behaviour or cognitive abilities.

All in all, the extraordinary story of Phineas Gage, propelled by an unforeseen accident, has left an indisputable mark on the early field of neuroscience. His story unraveled and uncovered the functions of the brain and tested the limits of human survival. He inspired many experts to delve into researching and perfecting knowledge on the localization of functions in the human brain. Today, his skull and the rod that injured him are both on display at the Warren Anatomical Museum in Boston.

Sources:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7735047/#:~:text=Gage’s%20case%20is%20considered%20to,personality%2C%20emotions%20and%20social%20interaction.&text=Prior%20to%20this%20case%2C%20the,and%20unrelated%20to%20human%20behavior.
https://www.verywellmind.com/phineas-gage-2795244#toc-what-happened-to-phineas-gage
https://www.thomasclarksonacademy.org/attachments/download.asp?

Optimizing Your Approach to Understanding and Effectively Managing Migraines

January 13, 2024

by Project Cleris with No Comment Blog

When people hear the word “migraine,” they think it’s just a severe headache or pain slightly more than a throbbing sensation in the temples. However, there are differences between the two that are important to note.

What is a migraine?

A migraine is more than a headache; it’s a neurological condition affecting more than one billion individuals yearly. Its most notable aspect is a pulsing headache on one side of the head, but it’s common to have a migraine without this pain. Other symptoms include aura, ringing in the ears, neck or shoulder pain, nausea, light or sound sensitivity, and irritability. Aura is a mixture of sensory, motor, and speech symptoms that act as warning signals before a migraine attack begins. About 15-20% of people experience migraine with aura.

There are four stages of a migraine attack. The first is prodrome, also known as preheadache, which can last a few hours to a few days. Symptoms include difficulty concentrating, speaking and reading, and moving muscles. The second is aura; this is the stage that some people may skip. The third is attack. Its main feature is a headache, and symptoms mimic an illness (nausea, loss of appetite, chills or sweating, dizziness). The last is post-drome, also called a migraine “hangover,” as its symptoms are similar to one: aches, mental fog, and feeling physically drained.

Figure 1: Overview of the Four Phases of a Migraine

How are the dealt with?

Unfortunately, very little is known about what triggers a migraine. The best way to deal with a migraine is to avoid it in the first place: if you can figure out its triggers, then avoid it.

Common triggers include drugs like alcohol and caffeine, stress, bright lights, strong smells, and a lack of sleep. Genetics also plays a significant role. About 60% of people have migraines because they inherited it.

If over-the-counter medicines like Advil Migraine or Excedrin Migraine don’t work, doctors can prescribe sumatriptan or rizatriptan. Both block pain pathways in the brain.

In general, hunkering down in a quiet, dark place and resting is the best way to deal with migraine pain. While there’s a common misconception that migraines are just more painful headaches, they are much more than that and should be taken seriously. As you would with any illness, do what you must do to feel better.

*Figure 2: The Brain With a Migraine in an MRI*

Sources:

https://www.pennmedicine.org/updates/blogs/health-and-wellness/2019/november/migraines-vs-headaches

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8904749/#:~:text=Migraine%20affects%20more%20than%20one,among%20young%20adults%20and%20females

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/-/scassets/images/org/health/articles/5005-migraine-headaches.jpg

https://www.mayo.edu/research/centers-programs/migraine-research-program/overview#:~:text=Migraine%20is%20challenging%20to%20study,the%20disorder%20as%20a%20disease

https://www.verywellhealth.com/thmb/CHtrxODCBCw9pmMDeotVPi-I7fI=/1500×0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/brain-lesions-on-mri-in-migraines-4044746-5c93cd0646e0fb00014427d0.png

Human Perception Unveiled: A Distinctive Collection of Our Perceptions

December 23, 2023

by Project Cleris with No Comment Blog

Our sensory processing is how we perceive and organize the messages from our senses (visual, auditory, taste, smell, touch, and body awareness). Sensory receptors are located throughout our body and constantly send messages to our brain and spinal cord. When these sensory receptors receive a message, they conduct an electrical impulse that is transmitted by neurons to our central nervous system (composed of our brain and spinal cord). Our neurons process this information and turn it into a motor or behavioral response. The impulse travels to our motor neurons and is sent to an effector (ex: a muscle or a gland) to execute a motor or behavioral response.

Someone looks at their glass of water, which activates their visual receptors. An electrical impulse is sent to their central nervous system, relaying a message. Through seeing this glass of water, their central nervous system receives the message that the body is thirsty. The impulse travels to the motor neuron to get a muscle to pick up the glass of water and take a drink. A muscle (effector) picks up the glass of water and the person drinks it.

Everyone processes stimuli differently, so our perception of the world sounds to us varies. Individuals who are neurodivergent or have atypical sensory processing can experience hypo sensitivity (under-responsive) or hypersensitivity (over-responsive). For example, those who are auditory-seeking are hyposensitive to sound, so they may need constant auditory stimulation through music, podcasts, or ambient noise.

Hypersensitivity may look like:

Visual: Lights are too bright, reacting suddenly to changes in bright lights
Auditory: Sounds are too loud or overwhelming, suddenly reacting to loud noises
Taste: The texture of certain foods may feel gross or out of place
Smell: Sensitive to strong scents such as perfumes
Touch: Sensitive to textures you touch, such as itchy clothes
Body Awareness: Bumping into objects and struggling with balance

Hyposensitivity may look like:

Visual: Enjoys visual stimulation such as bright and colorful light
Auditory: Going to concerts, listening to music at higher volumes
Taste: Likes to chew on things for stimulation
Smell: It may take longer to identify certain scents
Touch: Less awareness when it comes to being touched
Body Awareness: Struggling to keep still; you may not always recognize other people’s personal space

Image source: Research Gate

Stem Cells: The Fascinating Power Of Regenerative Medicine

November 25, 2023

by Project Cleris with No Comment Blog

What are stem cells? Maybe you’ve heard about them in science class, on the news, or in one of your favorite podcasts. In today’s world of medicine, stem cells can be considered revolutionary. They hold the power to make incredible advancements in medicine which could potentially change the way we fight and treat many diseases. In this article, we will cover the properties of stem cells, their current uses, and how they may further help in the near future.

An Overview:

Stem cells can be considered like clay; they can be molded, crafted, and shaped into anything. These cells can turn into specialized cells, which have their own unique function. Stem cells exist in all of our bodies and are found in a variety of tissues and organs such as the brain, pancreas, bones, skin, and heart.

There are multiple types of stem cells, two of which are currently being explored further.

Adult Stem Cells:

All around the body, we have a variety of stem cells. Some of these cells, such as stem cells found in the skin, are always active, whereas others lay dormant until needed. (ex, stem cells in the liver) One important note is that adult stem cells cannot freely turn into any type of specialized cell. They only turn into specialized cells that are in the surrounding area. For example, a stem cell in the heart could turn into a variety of cardiac cells, but would not have the capability to turn into a nerve cell in the brain. This trait of adult stem cells is something we call “multipotent”.

Embryonic Stem Cells:

Embryonic stem cells are much different than adult stem cells. They are found in a developing human embryo, typically from only the 4th-7th day after fertilization. These cells are considered pluripotent, meaning they can transform into any type of specialized cell.

Current Uses of Stem Cells:

Though stem cell treatment and therapy are both very new concepts, doctors and researchers have already developed some relatively safe uses for adult stem cells. For example, cancer patients who may have had red blood cells destroyed in treatment may be eligible for a “stem cell transplant” or “bone marrow transplant”. During this process, stem cells from a donor (Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplant) are introduced into the patient. The goal is that the patient’s body accepts the cells as its own, and in turn, can create new red blood cells. Stem cells can also come from the patient. Doctors may extract stem cells from the patient, store them, then reintroduce them at a later point. (Autologous Stem Cell Transplant) These types of transplants have also been proven to fight off certain blood-borne diseases. Currently, the use of stem cells in people is still quite limited. Doctors are still working towards using embryonic stem cells as they are more complex and harder to work with.

Further Research/Investigation:

Ongoing research is being conducted on the potential uses of stem cells. Researchers have worked with embryonic stem cells that will develop into a specialized cell of their choice. This could potentially be useful in testing drugs that target certain types of cells. On top of this, researchers are working to use embryonic cells with repairs involving tissue, organs, and even the spinal cord.

Conclusion:

Stem cells are still a big question mark in terms of their uses. Doctors and researchers continue to explore potential benefits. Through research, stem cells may have the potential to reshape the medical landscape, and change the way we treat diseases in the future.

Sources:

https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/bone-marrow-transplant/in-depth/stem-cells/art-20048117

https://stemcell.nd.edu/research/alternative-stem-cell-sources/adult-stem-cells/#:~:text=Unlike%20embryonic%20stem%20cells%2C%20which,they%20reside%20(called%20multipotent).

https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/bone-marrow-transplant/about/pac-20384854

https://www.whatisbiotechnology.org/index.php/science/summary/stem/stem-cells-repair-tissues-and-regenerate-cells

https://www.unmc.edu/stemcells/educational-resources/importance.html