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Perfume : A Scent-sational and Fascinating World

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Have you ever wondered how perfumes work? Or why some scents make you feel happy while others make you feel sad? From the comforting aroma of freshly baked cookies to the invigorating scent of a pine forest, we often find that certain smells can remarkably transport us through time and space, awakening a cascade of feelings and memories. But really, how does it all come into play?

The History of Perfumes

Although France comes to mind when we think of perfume or fragrances, the ancient art of perfumery arose in ancient Mesopotamia. The world’s very first recorded chemist was a perfume maker named Tapputi, whose existence was recorded in 1200 BC in Babylonian Mesopotamia. Flowers, oils, seeds, leaves, and other plant parts were common ingredients in early perfumes.

Once mixed with water and other solvents, it would be distilled and filtered. Later on, perfume would reach Rome, the Middle East, and other European nations.
The reason perfumery is most associated with France is that in the 14th century, the French started the cultivation of flowers for perfume in the subprefecture of Grasse, which continues until this day. Grasse is now considered to be the world capital of perfume.

The Road to Make a Perfume

Most perfumes obtain their smell through the extraction of fragrant oils from natural sources like plants, fruits, and wood. Some even use substances from animals, like musk from male deer. However, scents that don’t occur naturally may be created by synthetic chemicals. The methods employed to extract essential oils include steam distillation, expression, and enfleurage.

These oils are later blended to produce a unique scent. Ingredients like alcohol, coal, and tar may be added to adjust or alter the strength of the scent. If the perfume contains a higher concentration of essential oil, it will be more fragrant and generally more costly. This is what differentiates fragrances from one another. 

The Emotional Ties to Scents

Perfumes work by releasing molecules into the air that we can smell. When we inhale them, these molecules bind to the highly specialised olfactory receptors in our nose, which can are able to detect thousands of different molecules. This binding will trigger a signal being sent to the brain, which will later correlate to a response.
Signals from sensory organs pass through the brain’s limbic system, which handles behaviours, emotions, and emotion-related memories.

The amygdala, a part of the limbic system, is responsible for emotional processing. It is also the part that connects emotions to memories. This is why certain scents can trigger strong emotions or memories.

So next time you wear a perfume, take a moment to appreciate the science behind it. And remember, the right scent can have a powerful effect on your mood and your memories.

Sources:

Images:

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The Grave Effects of Marijuana Consumption

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Introduction:

Imagine you are at a social gathering and someone offers you a joint. You may have heard about the effects of marijuana from science classes and the media, but you may still be uncertain about what to expect. What happens to your brain and body when you embark on this journey? From the euphoric highs to the pitfalls of this green plant, in this exploration, we will dive deep into the intricate tapestry of marijuana’s effects on the brain and body, shedding light on both its allure and potential consequences, and examining the scientific side of this drug.

The Origins of Marijuana

Marijuana, also known as cannabis, has been a part of human culture for centuries. From traditional customs to modern recreational use, it has played a significant role in various cultures worldwide. While originally used for medicinal purposes, the use of this plant spread from Asia to Africa, Europe, and the Americas. In America, hemp, a variety of cannabis, was widely cultivated in the colonies of Virginia, Massachusetts, and Connecticut as a versatile resource for textiles, paper, and more. It is surprising to know that the early hemp plants had very low levels of the psychoactive compound THC. There are hints that ancient civilizations may have recognized the psychoactive potential of certain strains of the plant, potentially cultivating them for ceremonial or medicinal purposes. Evidence found in the graves of ancient shamans, including charred cannabis seeds, dates back to 500 BC and sheds light on the journey of cannabis through time.

The Compounds of Cannabis 

At the heart of marijuana’s enigmatic effects are over 500 distinct compounds in this green plant. The scent of this plant is due to the compound terpenoids which are responsible for the aroma of cannabis and other flowering plants. Studies show that terpenoids have diverse physiological effects, and they may contribute to the effects of cannabis. Moreover, cannabis contains unique compounds known as cannabinoids, with over 100 different types identified. The most well-known cannabinoid, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is responsible for the psychoactive effects of cannabis, including changes in perception, mood, emotion, cognition, and motor function. CBD has been receiving increasing attention due to its potential therapeutic properties.  These intricate compounds work together by interacting with the endocannabinoid system within our bodies, a sophisticated web of receptors that control a collection of physiological processes. The fascinating part is how various strains of marijuana contain different concentrations of THC, CBD, and other cannabinoids and terpenes. The chemical makeup of these drugs affects the body and mind in outlandish ways and understanding these compounds is essential for unraveling the mysteries of marijuana’s influence on our lives.

Short Term Effects

Even though the consumption of cannabis has long-term effects, it also has short-term effects that are striking and immediate. Those who consume edibles, smoke, or vape often find themselves embarking on a unique journey. In the presence of euphoria and an altered perception of this drug, colors appear more vivid, music becomes a symphony of sensations, and even food tastes different. However, this altered state always comes

with a price: impaired coordination and reflexes, an increased heart rate, dry mouth, and bloodshot eyes are frequent sidekicks of the cannabis experience. After taking cannabis, daily tasks that require concentration and focus may also be adversely affected temporarily when taking marijuana. When high doses or individual predispositions are present, this journey can unexpectedly turn into anxiety and paranoia. As a result, your heart rate can increase, making you more likely to suffer a heart attack, panic attack, or stroke.

Long Term Effects:

Through many years of debate and extensive scientific research, the effects of marijuana on the brain and body come with many long-term effects that might alter your mind about the narcotic. Cannabis use has been linked to various adverse health outcomes. Studies have shown that prolonged marijuana use can impair cognitive functions such as attention, memory, and learning (short-term memory), especially in adolescents. Furthermore, research shows that the usage of marijuana can raise the desire for alcohol,

increase the risk of bleeding, increase appetite, reduce the effectiveness of antiviral drugs, and lead to addiction. Moreover, addiction can lead to a lack of motivation and a decrease in educational and occupational achievements. There is a growing body of evidence linking cannabis use with mental health problems, psychosis (which can mimic the symptoms of schizophrenia), and more harmful substances. 

Conclusion:

In conclusion, our journey into the world of marijuana has revealed a complex and intricate landscape that requires a deep understanding of its nuances. While this green plant has deep historical and cultural roots, it also carries a myriad of compounds that interact with the human body and mind in unique ways. From the euphoric highs to the potential pitfalls, marijuana’s effects are both captivating and consequential through the various compounds that are within this potent green plant.

Sources:

https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements-marijuana/art-20364974

https://www.drugfreeworld.org/drugfacts/marijuana/short-and-long-term-effects.html

Check out more interesting articles at https://projectcleris.org

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Bioremediation: Hope in a Polluted World

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In a world beset by pollution and environmental damage, bioremediation shines as a beacon of hope. This cutting-edge biotechnology harnesses the innate capabilities of living organisms, like fungi, to combat environmental crises. It presents an eco-friendly, cost-effective solution for cleansing soil, water, and ecosystems plagued by pollutants and toxins. In this article, we’ll explore the fascinating world of bioremediation, delving into its mechanisms, varied methods, and real-world applications.

Understanding Bioremediation

Bioremediation stands as a pioneering technique that leverages living organisms to restore balance to tainted environments. This innovative approach proves to be invaluable in addressing a spectrum of environmental challenges, from polluted groundwater to catastrophic oil spills. Be it the rejuvenation of a pristine forest or the rehabilitation of an industrial site, bioremediation promises an ecologically sustainable solution.

The Inner Workings of Bioremediation

At the core of bioremediation lies the stimulation of specific microorganisms, orchestrating nature’s own purification process. This method revolves around optimizing the conditions for these microorganisms to thrive, thus expediting the breakdown of contaminants. To achieve this, bioremediation employs various additives like molasses, vegetable oil, or even simple aeration. These additives serve as catalysts, invigorating microbial activity and creating a more hospitable environment for their growth.

Bioremediation can be implemented through two primary approaches: “in situ” and “ex-situ.” In situ bioremediation transpires directly at the site of contamination, while ex-situ bioremediation takes place elsewhere. The choice between the two hinges on factors such as climate, soil density, and the extent of contamination. Ex situ bioremediation may involve soil excavation and above-ground cleansing, potentially adding substantial costs to the process.

Advantages of Bioremediation

Bioremediation presents a range of compelling advantages as an environmentally friendly approach to tackling pollution and contamination challenges. By harnessing the natural abilities of microorganisms and minimizing disruption to ecosystems, it offers a cost-effective and sustainable solution. Bioremediation is versatile, capable of addressing various contaminants, and it generates fewer wastes, transforming pollutants into harmless byproducts. It boasts long-term effectiveness, adapts to site-specific conditions, and enjoys regulatory support in many regions. Moreover, this method promotes energy conservation and reduces the risks of accidents.

A Remarkable Bioremediation Case

A striking example of bioremediation’s success unfolded in the aftermath of the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill. This catastrophic incident saw the Exxon Valdez oil tanker run aground off Alaska’s coast, resulting in the release of approximately 11 million gallons of oil. As the world grappled with the enormity of the spill, bioremediation emerged as a promising solution.

Both the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Exxon Mobil Corporation initiated experiments with various compounds to mitigate the disaster. Initial tests with bioremediation yielded promising results. Between 1989 and 1990, over 100,000 pounds of fertilizer were applied through more than 2,000 applications to the affected areas. By mid-1992, the cleanup was declared complete, with the fertilizer successfully breaking down nearly all the oil compounds.

Easiest Example of Bioremediation

Composting can be perceived as a variant of bioremediation known as biodegradation. It transforms food waste into fertile soil, reducing the strain on landfills and contributing to a more sustainable environment.

Conclusion

Bioremediation stands as a powerful fusion of science and nature, furnishing humanity with a formidable tool to combat environmental pollution. Its reliance on natural processes, minimal disruption to ecosystems, and cost-effectiveness position it as an exemplary solution for a world in urgent need of environmental healing. As we confront the challenges of pollution, bioremediation serves as a testament to our capacity to harness nature’s forces to mend the damage we’ve inflicted upon the Earth.

Bibliography:

Mitchell, C. (2022). What is bioremediation, and how does it work (With examples)? Investopedia. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/bioremediation.asp
Admin. (2021). Bioremediation – process | Types of bioremediation | Examples. BYJUS. https://byjus.com/biology/bioremediation/
Society, M. (n.d.). Bioremediation: The pollution solution? Microbiology Society. https://microbiologysociety.org/blog/bioremediation-the-pollution-solution.html

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Unlocking the Brain’s Response: Exploring the Impact of Social Media

by with One Comment Blog

The influence of social media on our brains is intricate and far-reaching. From the exhilarating ping of a notification to the insidious erosion of our attention spans, the digital realm weaves a complex tapestry of effects that can awaken pleasure centers, rewire our focus, and even cast shadows on our self-perception. In a world where tweets and posts hold immense power, examining the multifaceted impact of social media unveils a captivating story that reveals the inner workings of our minds. In today’s world, social media has become a pervasive platform for human interaction, with both beneficial and detrimental impacts on the mind. This article delves into the complex landscape of how social media usage affects the brain, examining the cognitive and emotional aspects that underlie its impact.

Neurotransmitters and dopamine release:
Social media usage triggers and releases dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with it. This creates a pleasurable sensation similar to accomplishing a task. This pleasurable sensation can be addicting, leading to an increased reliance on social media. Thus, it reinforces the brain’s desire for rewards and can lead to addictive behavior that is identical to substance abuse. Users who receive likes, comments, and positive feedback may become compulsive about checking social media platforms to maintain the pleasurable sensation.

Neuroplasticity and Attentional Change:
Our brains have the incredible ability to adapt and change in response to our experiences. Since social media is constantly changing content, it stimulates our brains to reorganize the neural pathways related to our attention. This is known as neuroplasticity, and it allows us to quickly adapt to our environment. This adaptation is constantly challenging our brains to rewire themselves and can lead to a preference for processing short, visually appealing information. This may alter the neural circuits connected to our ability to concentrate for extended periods. As a result, we may become accustomed to brief engagements, which could make it difficult to focus on tasks that demand deep contemplation.

Social Comparison and the Brain’s Social Circuitry:
Social media can sometimes lead to negative emotions due to the constant comparison of one’s life to the curated online personas of others. This can trigger negative feelings as the brain detects disparities between reality and idealized virtual representations. As a result, the brain can activate regions linked to harmful effects, contributing to feelings of inadequacy, envy, and compromised self-esteem.

Cortisol Response:
Frequent use of social media, particularly in negative situations or comparing yourself to others, causes the brain to respond to stress. This reaction involves the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis to activate, which results in the release of stress hormones such as cortisol. This constant release of stress hormones can have detrimental effects on memory, learning, and emotional regulation. Continual exposure to upsetting content, such as unsettling news or online conflicts, can worsen stress levels and negatively impact overall well-being.

Impact on Adolescent Brain Development:
Adolescence is a crucial period for the ongoing development of the brain, especially in areas related to decision-making, impulse control, and emotional regulation. Overuse of social media during this developmental phase can interfere with the brain’s structural and functional connectivity. Heavy social media use among adolescents may result in changes to brain regions that are responsible for self-regulation and social cognition, which could potentially influence their socio-emotional development.
The fusion of social media and the brain underlines a complex connection that shapes cognitive, emotional, and developmental processes. Grasping the interplay between neurotransmitter modulation, neuroplasticity, social comparison, and stress response. In a time where social media is the norm, understanding the brain’s response to social media empowers individuals to better understand.

Sources:
The “online brain”: how the Internet may be changing our cognition – PMC (nih.gov)
How Social Media Affects Your Brain | Neuline (neulinehealth.com)
Pros & cons: impacts of social media on mental health | BMC Psychology | Full Text (biomedcentral.com)
The Influence of Social Media: How Likes and Follows Impact Our Behaviors • ComputeNepal
Social Media and the Brain (humanetech.com)

Find more interesting science content at https://projectcleris.org

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Continuous Learning: The Self Improvement Path with Neurological Benefits

by with One Comment Blog

Whatever we think we know, there is always something new to learn and ways to improve ourselves. The journey of self-improvement is never-ending, but it’s a worthwhile one. That’s why Continuous Learning is both the answer to many questions and also a way to improve our neurological health.

Continuous Learning refers to acquiring new knowledge, skills, or experiences throughout your life. You could, for example, learn a new language, take up a new hobby, read books on various topics, attend courses or workshops, or even travel to new places to learn about different cultures. The key is to keep your mind engaged and actively seek opportunities to learn and grow.

Learning something new on a regular basis is important because it keeps your mind active and engaged, keeps you curious and open-minded, and can lead to personal and professional growth. By acquiring new knowledge, skills, or experiences, you can expand your perspective, increase your confidence, and become more adaptable to change. Exploring your interests and passions, connecting with others, and enriching your life will also be fun and rewarding.

Also, this activity can have significant neurological benefits. It can help improve cognitive function, memory, and overall brain health. Regular engagement in learning activities can also reduce the risk of age-related cognitive decline and dementia. Challenging your brain and building new neural pathways can enhance your ability to think critically, solve problems, and make decisions. So, make learning a lifelong habit and reap the many benefits it can offer for your brain and overall well-being.

A new language, a musical instrument, a new skill or hobby, a new subject or topic, a new recipe, a new exercise routine, a new game or puzzle, a new technology or software, a new culture or history, and many other things are examples of continuous learning. . The key is to push yourself and engage in enjoyable and mentally stimulating activities. You can improve your brain function and overall well-being by doing so.

References:

What is Continuous Learning? Its Importance & Benefits. https://www.valamis.com/hub/continuous-learning

Productive Use of Our Time – TPW398 – The Productive Woman. https://theproductivewoman.com/productive-use-of-our-time-tpw398/

Find more interesting science blogs at https://projectcleris.org

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Tinnitus: Never-ending Noise

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Hearing is one of our five senses, making our ears a vital part of our body. The ear consists of three parts: the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. When the outer ear picks up a sound, it travels through the external auditory canal and hits the eardrum, which then vibrates. These vibrations travel to three bones in the middle ear, known as the ossicles, where the sound gets amplified. Finally, the waves reach the cochlea in the inner ear and get converted into electrical impulses, which the brain translates into sound.  

This process is necessary for everyday life. Unfortunately, due to the delicate nature of the ear, this process can easily be disrupted. For example, exposure to loud sounds can damage the ears’ nerves, causing hearing loss. However, this can also cause something else: tinnitus. 

Tinnitus is the result of damage to the inner ear. Repetitive exposure to loud noise damages the tiny hair cells in the cochlea, which are responsible for sending electrical impulses to the brain. When the cells are bent or broken, they transmit random, spontaneous signals to the brain. The brain receives them and creates phantom noises – sounds only in the head with no external source.

Most cases of tinnitus are caused by hearing loss, which often happens as people age. 24% of people aged 65 and above have tinnitus. However, hearing loss can be accelerated by frequently being in an environment with loud sounds. These environments range from construction sites to blasting music through headphones. 18 – 29% of youth worldwide subject themselves to dangerous volume levels daily. 

Tinnitus can cause different kinds of phantom noises: ringing, buzzing, roaring, clicking, hissing, and humming in the ears. It can be present all the time or come and go. It can be in one ear or both. It can be loud or soft. 

Tinnitus may vary from person to person, but no matter how it presents, it proves to be unpleasant.

About 750 million people around the world have tinnitus. Most people with it lament that they can’t have silence anymore. The constant sound in their ears can even cause anxiety and depression. Some use background noise, such as TV or music, to drown out the noise. Tinnitus can be ignored sometimes, but the cold, hard truth is that tinnitus is permanent. There is no cure. 

So, the best method of protection is prevention. Tone down the volume of your music when you use headphones. Wear earplugs when you’re in a loud environment like a concert. Regularly exercise and eat healthy to prevent tinnitus caused by obesity or blood vessel disorders.

Figure 2: Loop Experience Earplugs, a popular and comfortable form of noise protection

The world has gotten louder. Noise surrounds us constantly, and it can be hard to get a moment of silence. By protecting your ears, you protect your peace as well. 

Sources: 

Inner Ear: Anatomy & Function

Anatomy and Physiology of the Ear

Tinnitus – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

Tinnitus | NHS inform

Living a normal life with tinnitus | Duke Health 

What is Tinnitus? 

Loud music may be damaging ears of 1 billion young people, study says 

The 4 Best Earplugs for Concerts of 2023 | Reviews by Wirecutter 

Why Everything Is Getting Louder 

https://m.media-amazon.com/images/I/51XWq+KyMiL._AC_SY300_SX300_.jpg

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The Brain’s 4 Happy Hormones: Serotonin, Dopamine, Endorphins and Oxytocin

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I. Introduction: Brief Overview of Neurotransmitters and Their Role in Brain Function.

That amazing feeling after a good workout, the pure joy that washes over your body when you finally achieve that long-awaited goal, a comforting embrace from a loved one that instantly fills your heart with warmth, or the laughter that leaves your belly aching; behind all of those remarkable moments lies a group of neurotransmitters, which are often referred to as the brain’s “happy hormones.” This little group of chemicals – serotonin, dopamine, endorphins, and oxytocin – play a crucial role in shaping our emotions, behaviours and overall well-being. They hold the key behind the best moments in our lives that are filled with joy, contentment, and excitement. Each plays a unique part in the grand performance of human emotion. We’ll dive into the science behind these neurotransmitters, exploring their origins, functions, and the fascinating interplay between them. As we peel back the layers of their influence, we’ll discover how they contribute to our experiences of joy, resilience, and human connection.

II. Serotonin: The Brain’s Manager.

Serotonin functions as a messenger between the brain and throughout the body. It facilitates communication between nerve cells (neurons) in the brain and other body regions. A lack of enough serotonin can play a role in depression, anxiety, mania, and other health conditions.

Additionally, it has a wide range of functions that contribute to various aspects of our mental and emotional well-being.

– It is best known for its role in mood regulation, where it helps stabilise emotions and promotes a sense of calmness and contentment. When serotonin is at normal levels, you feel much more stable, happier, and calmer. However, as mentioned before, lower levels are associated with mood disorders.

– It also regulates your sleep. It helps tell your body when it’s time to rest and wake up. Serotonin also plays an important role in the quality of your sleep.

– It influences both appetite and digestion as 90% of the serotonin resides in the gut, which is then released into your blood circulation and absorbed by platelets.

Serotonin is scientifically known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT). Once it is released from our neurons, serotonin binds to specific receptor sites on the surfaces of target cells. These receptors are called serotonin receptors, and there are multiple subtypes with different functions. The binding of serotonin to its receptors triggers a cascade of biochemical reactions inside the target cells, leading to specific physiological and behavioral responses. 

III. Dopamine: The Main Star.

Imagine you could hit a button every time you want to feel happy or motivated. This is dopamine, except it’s not a button that you can call whenever you want, but rather something that appears as a result of doing things you enjoy. For example, when we finally achieve that one goal we have been working for all year, dopamine is the pat on the back that tells us, “Great job! You did something awesome!”, making us feel excited and proud. 

It acts as a motivator, encouraging us to seek out activities that bring joy and satisfaction. Dopamine helps us anticipate and achieve rewards, which can range from the simple pleasure of eating something delicious to the sense of accomplishment that comes after solving a challenging problem. It’s the force that drives us to pursue our goals, experience pleasure, and keep pushing forward. Proper dopamine function is essential for maintaining a healthy level of motivation and engagement with the world around us.

It is easy to mistake the roles of dopamine and serotonin as they both play a crucial role in our overall mental well-being. While dopamine focuses on the excitement of rewards, serotonin works alongside dopamine to maintain emotional stability. Thus, while dopamine is associated with excitement and rewards, serotonin helps keep these feelings in balance, preventing extremes. Think of dopamine as the “I did it!” feeling after a big achievement, while serotonin provides a steady sense of well-being.

IV. Endorphins: The Superheroes.

In comics, whenever there are “bad guys,” there are usually superheroes that defeat them. In this case, endorphins are the superheroes in our brains. They act as a shield against pain, whether physical or emotional, and create a sense of euphoria that leaves us feeling uplifted and joyful.

They’re a group of natural chemicals known to play a vital role in pain regulation and stress response. When the body experiences stress or pain, endorphins are released to help alleviate discomfort and promote a sense of well-being.

The word “endorphins” is a combination of “endogenous” (originating within the body) and “morphine” (a powerful pain-relieving medication). They’re released by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in response to pain or stress.

V. Oxytocin: The Love Fairy.

Oxytocin, often referred to as the “bonding hormone” or “love hormone,” is a remarkable neurotransmitter produced in the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland. It’s known for its pivotal role in creating emotional bonds, fostering trust, and enhancing social connections. It is what enhances feelings of empathy and emotional understanding, which deepen our relationships.

Not only does oxytocin make us feel close to our loved ones, but it also encourages kindness. When we do something nice for someone, like sharing a toy or helping someone in need, our brain releases even more oxytocin. It’s almost like a reward for being a good friend and spreading kindness around. 

VI. Conclusion: Why Are Each of Them Important?

These unique happy hormones each play a vital role in our mental well-being and life enrichment. With serotonin, it ensures the steady course of our inner world. By maintaining emotional equilibrium and fostering a sense of contentment, serotonin establishes the foundation upon which our emotional well-being thrives.

With dopamine, it fuels our motivation, sparks excitement, and celebrates our achievements. It encourages us to pursue our aspirations with zeal and to celebrate our accomplishments, no matter their scale. It instills life with a vibrant energy that beckons us to cherish the thrill of every moment.

Endorphin is the body’s shield, which keeps us going during the dark days. 

Oxytocin is the bonding force that connects us to loved ones. Its significance lies in nurturing connections, building trust, and fostering empathy. It shows us that our interactions with loved ones, the warmth of a hug, and the joy of shared laughter are the true gems of life. It reminds us that our capacity to care and connect is a source of endless joy and fulfilment.

You can boost levels of these hormones with small lifestyle changes, such as diet, exercise, and meditation. With just simple and intentional choices, like a leisurely stroll in the park or a heartfelt conversation with a friend, these happy hormones can be nudged into action, enriching our lives with moments of genuine happiness. So, as you navigate the beautiful journey of life, remember that within you reside the architects of joy – serotonin, dopamine, endorphins, and oxytocin. 

Sources:

https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/serotonin-the-natural-mood-booster

https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/oxytocin-the-love-hormone

https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/endorphins-the-brains-natural-pain-reliever

https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/feel-good-hormones-how-they-affect-your-mind-mood-and-body

https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/dopamine-the-pathway-to-pleasure

https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/dopamine-the-pathway-to-pleasure

https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/family-resources-education/700childrens/2023/02/dopamine-and-serotonin#:~:text=Serotonin%2C%20while%20similar%20to%20dopamine,metabolism%2C%20emotions%20and%20even%20sleep!

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22572-serotonin#:~:text=Serotonin%20is%20a%20chemical%20that,blood%20clotting%20and%20sexual%20desire.

https://villagepipol.com/

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A Journey Into Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia

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Imagine this. You were riding on your bike. It was quiet and peaceful, with a light breeze blowing through your hair… BUT THEN BAM! You tumble to the ground, hitting your head hard on a rock. A couple hours later you realize, hmm, “I don’t remember what I had for breakfast today.”

You are most likely experiencing retrograde amnesia as a result of the beginning of damage. Retrograde amnesia is an interesting idea that is frequently coupled with anterograde amnesia. To summarize retrograde amnesia, it is simply the inability to recall memories prior to the start of amnesia or the injury/illness. Anterograde amnesia is defined as the inability to form new long-term memories.

Let’s begin with anterograde amnesia first! Anterograde amnesia can be caused by a wide variety of causes – it can be caused by age-related brain diseases (like Alzheimer’s disease) or brain injury (like the fall in the first paragraph). It can also be caused by stroke, epilepsy, seizures, brain aneurysms, brain tumors, and more. Anterograde amnesia truly has a wide range of causes.

Before we move into the neuroscience of anterograde amnesia, we should cover some of the symptoms of anterograde amnesia – after all, application is important! Anterograde amnesia can manifest in a myriad of ways, it can manifest as forgetting conversations, forgetting the names and faces of other people, confusion or disorientation about current events, headaches, issues with speaking, writing, reading, etc. While this is a more generalized list of symptoms, the symptoms may change depending on what is the cause.


Before we cover the actual neuroscience of anterograde amnesia, it’s important to cover how memory works. Memory can be stored in many different ways, but two important ways are explicit and implicit memory. Explicit memory can be stored as semantic memory and episodic memory. Semantic memory is just remembering a fact, but episodic memory is more so remembering the experience. Implicit memories are things like habits or basic life skills that the individual uses every day. Examples would be riding a bike, tying shoes, or swimming. Anterograde amnesia is associated with being unable to make long-term memories, not being unable to make memories at all! In some cases, memories are made, it is just that it is overwritten by whatever memory comes next. This process is called retroactive interference. Anterograde amnesia is caused by damage to the hippocampus as that is the memory center of the brain.

Next, let’s cover retrograde amnesia. Retrograde amnesia can be caused by traumatic brain injury, a thiamine deficiency, encephalitis, Alzheimer’s disease, stroke, seizures, and cardiac arrest. Mainly, retrograde amnesia affects the emotion and memory centers of the brain, the thalamus and hippocampus. Some symptoms of retrograde amnesia are not remembering previous events, forgetting information from before the onset of amnesia, remembering previously learned skills, and keeping older memories.

One important fact to note is that retrograde and anterograde amnesia rarely occur on their own – they mostly occur together! Research has shown that anterograde and retrograde amnesia are positively correlated – as one increases, so does the other. Another interesting fact that research has found is that anterograde amnesia needs to reach a severity threshold before retrograde amnesia begins to manifest. It is easier to disrupt learning ability than to disrupt already learned memories.

The distinction between retrograde and anterograde amnesia is critical in both clinical and scientific settings. Since they both occur after traumatic brain injury, not being able to remember key aspects of an individual’s life after these events could be emotionally distressing to the individual. It is important to remember that, while these two conditions are not chronic (most of the time), they can still have significant consequences.

Sources:
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23221-anterograde-amnesia#:~:text=Degenerative%20brain%20conditions%20like%20Alzheimer’s,brain%20deteriorate%20and%20stop%20working.


https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3837701/#:~:text=Anterograde%20amnesia%20(AA)%20refers%20to,before%20the%20onset%20of%20amnesia.
https://www.brain-injury-law-center.com/blog/traumatic-brain-injury-and-anterograde-amnesia/#:~:text=Damage%20to%20the%20hippocampus%20seems%20to%20be%20most%20responsible%20for%20anterograde%20amnesia.&text=Traumatic%20brain%20injury%20is%20a,or%20more%20is%20often%20fatal.
https://www.osmosis.org/answers/hippocampus#:~:text=The%20hippocampus%20is%20involved%20in,to%20the%20objects%20around%20them.
https://www.healthline.com/health/amnesia/anterograde-amnesia#causes
https://www.healthline.com/health/retrograde-amnesia#types-and-symptoms

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Neuralink: Revolutionary or Dangerous?

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Visualize yourself living in an era where science fiction becomes a reality. For seven years, a groundbreaking endeavor called Neuralink has emerged. This tiny coin-shaped device pushes the boundaries of human potential by flawlessly merging our minds with the digital world. The creation of the Neuralink holds the promise of unlocking centuries of mysteries about the brain. This will revolutionize medicine, accelerating society into a future where humans and machines are blurred. Furthermore, it will allow our cognitive capabilities to reach creative heights. Though this sounds enchanting, many have asked if the creator, Elon Musk, is playing God and if it is ethical to interfere with the brain. We will discuss the functions of Neuralink, the medical benefits, and the ethical and safety concerns of it.

Figure 1: Neuroimaging of a Neuralink inside of the brain.


What is a Neuralink and How Does it Work?
The process of Neuralink started in July 2016. Elon Musk and his team are working on innovative technology that could allow people to control machines through their thoughts. This involves ultrafine brain threads that listen to neurons. To facilitate the process, they have developed a specialized robot for surgery. While their initial goal was to compete with AI, they are now focusing on helping individuals with brain disorders. This N1 chip by Neuralink is implanted in the skull and measures 4mm square. It uses thin wires, thinner than human hair, to detect and record neuron messages from the brain. With the ability to connect up to 1,000 brain cells, multiple chips can be implanted for maximum connectivity. These chips wirelessly connect to a wearable device, such as a hearing aid, equipped with Bluetooth and a battery for convenience. Traditional neurosurgery is currently used for implantation, but the company plans to use robot surgeons for safer and less invasive procedures.

Figure 2: The surgical machine to implant the Neuralink


The Future of Neuralink in Medicine
Neuralink, headed by Elon Musk, aids those with physical or mental disabilities by creating a brain-machine interface. They have developed a state-of-the-art machine that interfaces with the brain through tiny implanted electrodes called “threads.” These electrodes can record neuronal activity, providing valuable insights into neurons’ workings and roles in the brain. This technology has immense potential in neurosurgery, particularly in improving sensory and motor function in individuals with neurological disorders. It can help restore neuronal connections in deteriorating ailments, boost cognitive abilities, prevent epilepsy and seizure attacks, and even offer robotic mind control. Moreover, Neuralink’s advancements provide better communication for patients with disabilities, as thoughts can be translated directly into written or spoken words, benefiting those with communication disorders or locked-in syndrome. As a pioneering neurotechnology company, Neuralink is at the forefront of developing a brain-computer interface with immense potential in medical settings, particularly for individuals with physical and mental disabilities. Although it is still in the developmental and experimental phase, its intended applications hold great promise. One significant application involves restoring motor function in individuals with paralysis or motor impairments by bypassing damaged neural pathways. This grants them control over their movements and enhances their independence. Additionally, Neuralink’s technology can assist individuals with sensory impairments, like blindness or deafness, by providing a means to receive and interpret sensory information through the interface. It is crucial to emphasize the importance of extensive research, testing, and regulatory approvals. This is to ensure Neuralink’s safety, efficacy, and ethical considerations in medical settings. Neuralink’s ongoing development has the potential to significantly transform the lives of individuals with disabilities. However, it will require careful exploration and validation to fully realize its capabilities in medical intervention.

Figure 3: Structure of the Neuralink


Ethical and Safety Concerns of Neuralink
The idea of implanting a chip in the brain may seem like an innovative and safe solution, but neuroscientists have raised ethical concerns about its potential risks. Dr. John Krakauer highlights that the development of a chip capable of controlling hormone levels or streaming music inside the brain is still in its early stages. Premature adoption of such technology could give people false hopes. Previous experiments have revealed serious safety concerns associated with the invasive and rushed nature of the product. In 2023, the FDA expressed concern about the device’s lithium battery, the potential migration of tiny wires to other brain regions, and the safe removal of the device without causing damage to the brain tissue. Lesions resulting from brain tissue damage can lead to symptoms such as weakness, sensory disruptions, confusion, and impaired involuntary movements. In contrast, noninvasive methods have shown promise in enhancing lives without the need for surgery or the risk of infection.

Studies have demonstrated improvements in the lives of elderly individuals, translation of brain activity into intelligible speech, and assistance for paralyzed patients. Shockingly, the Physicians Committee obtained internal records of a distressing monkey experiment where one of the infected monkeys exhibited infection at the surgical site and subsequent acute bleeding, leading to a dilapidated cerebral cortex. Acute bleeding in the brain can result in various symptoms such as headaches, nausea, seizures, limb weakness or numbness, difficulty in speech or comprehension, and loss of consciousness. Ryan Merkley, the Director of Research and Advocacy with the Physicians Committee, criticizes Elon Musk’s focus on invasive devices, asserting that investing in noninvasive brain-computer interfaces would be a more considerate approach to patient health. “Musk needs to drop his obsession with sticking a device in our heads. If he cared about patients’ health, he would invest in a noninvasive brain-computer interface.” -Ryan Merkley
While researchers are extensively studying the potential long-term effects of implanting Neuralink in the brain, it is crucial to acknowledge the inherent invasiveness of the procedure and the associated risks and concerns. Complications, such as infection or bleeding, may arise from the surgical process itself. Furthermore, the presence of the implant within the brain raises additional worries regarding potential issues like tissue damage, inflammation, or immune responses. Ongoing investigations are essential to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the long-term implications, evaluate the safety profile, and effectively mitigate any potential risks associated with the implementation of the Neuralink implant.

Figure 4: Getting A Link, real imaging of the link

In conclusion, Neuralink represents an exciting and groundbreaking endeavor that holds tremendous promise for enhancing brain function. It also blurs the lines between humans and machines. For people with disabilities and neurological disorders, technology offers promising prospects. It improves communication, restores sensory and motor functions, and even allows them to control robots with mind control. Concerns have been raised regarding the invasiveness of the procedure, the rushed development, and potential risks such as brain tissue damage and device migration. Many critics argue that noninvasive alternatives should be explored further to improve lives without surgery and its complications. Although Neuralink’s ambitions are admirable, ethical consideration and a thorough evaluation of safety measures are crucial to ensuring the well-being of those undergoing the procedure.

Sources:
An Examination of Prospective Uses and Future Directions of Neuralink: The Brain-Machine Interface – PMC (nih.gov)
Chat.openai.com (To find some of the sources)
Everything you need to know about Neuralink | BBC Science Focus Magazine
Physicians Committee’s Statement on Neuralink Reportedly Receiving Approval for Human Clinical Trials From the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (pcrm.org)
Brain Lesions: What They Are, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment (clevelandclinic.org)
https://www.businessinsider.in/tech/news/watch-elon-musks-ai-brain-chip-startup-neuralink-debut-its-massively-hyped-technology/articleshow/77814746.cms
https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=wEJ4XZGa&id=4B93

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Biotechnology: The Future of Living Organisms

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Biotechnology is the application of biological processes, organisms, or systems to create products or services. It involves using living organisms to develop new technologies that can improve our lives in various ways. Because of its wide applications, biotechnology is a rapidly growing field that is changing how we live, work, and interact with the world around us. From developing new medicines to creating more sustainable agricultural practices, biotechnology has the potential to impact our society and the environment significantly.

Biotechnology has many benefits for society and the environment. It can help us to create new medicines, improve agricultural practices, and develop sustainable technologies. Also, it can help us find new ways to address global challenges and improve our quality of life by using living organisms to create products and services. However, with great power comes great responsibility, whether it’s developing new vaccines or creating more eco-friendly products. Biotechnology also has ethical implications that need to be carefully considered. One of the ethical implications of biotechnology is the potential for genetic discrimination. As we learn more about our DNA and how it affects our health, there is a risk that employers and insurance companies may use this information to discriminate against individuals who are deemed to be at higher risk for certain diseases. Another ethical concern is the use of biotechnology in enhancing human performance. While this may seem like a positive development, it raises questions about fairness and equality. If only a select few can afford to enhance their abilities, it could widen the gap between the haves and have-nots.
Biotechnology has the potential to improve the quality of life for living beings. Through the development of new medicines and vaccines, biotechnology can help us combat diseases and improve overall health. Additionally, biotechnology can help us create more sustainable agricultural practices, which can help improve food security and reduce environmental damage. By using living organisms to develop products and services, biotechnology can help us find innovative solutions to improve the lives of people and the planet.
In conclusion, biotechnology is a powerful tool that can help us tackle some of the world’s most pressing challenges. From improving human health to creating sustainable agricultural practices, biotechnology has the potential to make a positive impact on our lives and the planet. By continuing to invest in biotechnology research and development, we can unlock even more potential and create a brighter future for ourselves and future generations.

References:

The distance between pharmaceutical companies and Medical Specialists – Biotechnology. https://biotechnologycommunity.com/md_news/distance-between-pharmaceutical-companies/
Green Cleaners Singapore and Australia: December 2012. https://greencleanersasia.blogspot.com/2012/12/
USDA – Biotechnology Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs). Biotechnology FAQs | USDA

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