Picture this: It’s September 13, 1848, and in the quiet town of Cavendish, Vermont, a 25-year-old named Phineas Gage is immersed in the routine work of a railroad foreman. Engaged in the meticulous task of preparing a railroad bed, Gage handles an iron tamping rod with practiced hands, packing explosive powder into the ground. Little did he know that the trajectory of that iron rod would alter the course of his life, and end up providing insight into the functions of the human brain for years to come.
As the explosive powder detonated due to the friction, the rod was launched into his left cheek, destroying his eye. It made its way through the left front of the brain before exiting the skull from the right side. However, despite such an intense accident, Gage was still able to walk and talk while looking for medical assistance. During his recovery, Gage was treated by a number of medical professionals, including Dr. John Harlow, who would report the case in the Boston Medical Surgery Journal.
However, what truly made the case of Phineas Gage so remarkable and relevant in the history of various fields like psychology and neuroscience was not only his ability to survive a seemingly fatal injury but how this accident had changed him on a mental and emotional plane. Prior to the accident, coworkers, friends, and family of Phineas Gage described him to be hardworking, energetic, and pleasant. After the accident, they went as far as saying that he was “no longer Gage”. His irritable manner resulted in him losing his job. In the later years of his life, his personality would return to the way it was, signaling that healing in the frontal lobe could reverse personality changes. The primary area of injury in Gage’s accident was the frontal lobe; At the time, the frontal lobes were ‘considered silent structures, without function and unrelated to human behaviour.’ so the fact that only his personality was changed led early neurologists to alter their current understanding of the brain’s localisation of function.
The concept of the localisation of function in the brain refers to the idea that specific cognitive and behavioural functions are associated with particular regions or areas within the brain. This principle suggests that different parts of the brain are responsible for different functions, and damage to or stimulation of specific areas can result in predictable changes in behaviour or cognitive abilities.
All in all, the extraordinary story of Phineas Gage, propelled by an unforeseen accident, has left an indisputable mark on the early field of neuroscience. His story unraveled and uncovered the functions of the brain and tested the limits of human survival. He inspired many experts to delve into researching and perfecting knowledge on the localization of functions in the human brain. Today, his skull and the rod that injured him are both on display at the Warren Anatomical Museum in Boston.
When people hear the word “migraine,” they think it’s just a severe headache or pain slightly more than a throbbing sensation in the temples. However, there are differences between the two that are important to note.
What is a migraine?
A migraine is more than a headache; it’s a neurological condition affecting more than one billion individuals yearly. Its most notable aspect is a pulsing headache on one side of the head, but it’s common to have a migraine without this pain. Other symptoms include aura, ringing in the ears, neck or shoulder pain, nausea, light or sound sensitivity, and irritability. Aura is a mixture of sensory, motor, and speech symptoms that act as warning signals before a migraine attack begins. About 15-20% of people experience migraine with aura.
There are four stages of a migraine attack. The first is prodrome, also known as preheadache, which can last a few hours to a few days. Symptoms include difficulty concentrating, speaking and reading, and moving muscles. The second is aura; this is the stage that some people may skip. The third is attack. Its main feature is a headache, and symptoms mimic an illness (nausea, loss of appetite, chills or sweating, dizziness). The last is post-drome, also called a migraine “hangover,” as its symptoms are similar to one: aches, mental fog, and feeling physically drained.
Figure 1: Overview of the Four Phases of a Migraine
How are the dealt with?
Unfortunately, very little is known about what triggers a migraine. The best way to deal with a migraine is to avoid it in the first place: if you can figure out its triggers, then avoid it.
Common triggers include drugs like alcohol and caffeine, stress, bright lights, strong smells, and a lack of sleep. Genetics also plays a significant role. About 60% of people have migraines because they inherited it.
If over-the-counter medicines like Advil Migraine or Excedrin Migraine don’t work, doctors can prescribe sumatriptan or rizatriptan. Both block pain pathways in the brain.
In general, hunkering down in a quiet, dark place and resting is the best way to deal with migraine pain. While there’s a common misconception that migraines are just more painful headaches, they are much more than that and should be taken seriously. As you would with any illness, do what you must do to feel better.
The influence of social media on our brains is intricate and far-reaching. From the exhilarating ping of a notification to the insidious erosion of our attention spans, the digital realm weaves a complex tapestry of effects that can awaken pleasure centers, rewire our focus, and even cast shadows on our self-perception. In a world where tweets and posts hold immense power, examining the multifaceted impact of social media unveils a captivating story that reveals the inner workings of our minds. In today’s world, social media has become a pervasive platform for human interaction, with both beneficial and detrimental impacts on the mind. This article delves into the complex landscape of how social media usage affects the brain, examining the cognitive and emotional aspects that underlie its impact.
Neurotransmitters and dopamine release: Social media usage triggers and releases dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with it. This creates a pleasurable sensation similar to accomplishing a task. This pleasurable sensation can be addicting, leading to an increased reliance on social media. Thus, it reinforces the brain’s desire for rewards and can lead to addictive behavior that is identical to substance abuse. Users who receive likes, comments, and positive feedback may become compulsive about checking social media platforms to maintain the pleasurable sensation.
Neuroplasticity and Attentional Change: Our brains have the incredible ability to adapt and change in response to our experiences. Since social media is constantly changing content, it stimulates our brains to reorganize the neural pathways related to our attention. This is known as neuroplasticity, and it allows us to quickly adapt to our environment. This adaptation is constantly challenging our brains to rewire themselves and can lead to a preference for processing short, visually appealing information. This may alter the neural circuits connected to our ability to concentrate for extended periods. As a result, we may become accustomed to brief engagements, which could make it difficult to focus on tasks that demand deep contemplation.
Social Comparison and the Brain’s Social Circuitry: Social media can sometimes lead to negative emotions due to the constant comparison of one’s life to the curated online personas of others. This can trigger negative feelings as the brain detects disparities between reality and idealized virtual representations. As a result, the brain can activate regions linked to harmful effects, contributing to feelings of inadequacy, envy, and compromised self-esteem.
Cortisol Response: Frequent use of social media, particularly in negative situations or comparing yourself to others, causes the brain to respond to stress. This reaction involves the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis to activate, which results in the release of stress hormones such as cortisol. This constant release of stress hormones can have detrimental effects on memory, learning, and emotional regulation. Continual exposure to upsetting content, such as unsettling news or online conflicts, can worsen stress levels and negatively impact overall well-being.
Impact on Adolescent Brain Development: Adolescence is a crucial period for the ongoing development of the brain, especially in areas related to decision-making, impulse control, and emotional regulation. Overuse of social media during this developmental phase can interfere with the brain’s structural and functional connectivity. Heavy social media use among adolescents may result in changes to brain regions that are responsible for self-regulation and social cognition, which could potentially influence their socio-emotional development. The fusion of social media and the brain underlines a complex connection that shapes cognitive, emotional, and developmental processes. Grasping the interplay between neurotransmitter modulation, neuroplasticity, social comparison, and stress response. In a time where social media is the norm, understanding the brain’s response to social media empowers individuals to better understand.
Visualize yourself living in an era where science fiction becomes a reality. For seven years, a groundbreaking endeavor called Neuralink has emerged. This tiny coin-shaped device pushes the boundaries of human potential by flawlessly merging our minds with the digital world. The creation of the Neuralink holds the promise of unlocking centuries of mysteries about the brain. This will revolutionize medicine, accelerating society into a future where humans and machines are blurred. Furthermore, it will allow our cognitive capabilities to reach creative heights. Though this sounds enchanting, many have asked if the creator, Elon Musk, is playing God and if it is ethical to interfere with the brain. We will discuss the functions of Neuralink, the medical benefits, and the ethical and safety concerns of it.
Figure 1: Neuroimaging of a Neuralink inside of the brain.
What is a Neuralink and How Does it Work? The process of Neuralink started in July 2016. Elon Musk and his team are working on innovative technology that could allow people to control machines through their thoughts. This involves ultrafine brain threads that listen to neurons. To facilitate the process, they have developed a specialized robot for surgery. While their initial goal was to compete with AI, they are now focusing on helping individuals with brain disorders. This N1 chip by Neuralink is implanted in the skull and measures 4mm square. It uses thin wires, thinner than human hair, to detect and record neuron messages from the brain. With the ability to connect up to 1,000 brain cells, multiple chips can be implanted for maximum connectivity. These chips wirelessly connect to a wearable device, such as a hearing aid, equipped with Bluetooth and a battery for convenience. Traditional neurosurgery is currently used for implantation, but the company plans to use robot surgeons for safer and less invasive procedures.
Figure 2: The surgical machine to implant the Neuralink
The Future of Neuralink in Medicine Neuralink, headed by Elon Musk, aids those with physical or mental disabilities by creating a brain-machine interface. They have developed a state-of-the-art machine that interfaces with the brain through tiny implanted electrodes called “threads.” These electrodes can record neuronal activity, providing valuable insights into neurons’ workings and roles in the brain. This technology has immense potential in neurosurgery, particularly in improving sensory and motor function in individuals with neurological disorders. It can help restore neuronal connections in deteriorating ailments, boost cognitive abilities, prevent epilepsy and seizure attacks, and even offer robotic mind control. Moreover, Neuralink’s advancements provide better communication for patients with disabilities, as thoughts can be translated directly into written or spoken words, benefiting those with communication disorders or locked-in syndrome. As a pioneering neurotechnology company, Neuralink is at the forefront of developing a brain-computer interface with immense potential in medical settings, particularly for individuals with physical and mental disabilities. Although it is still in the developmental and experimental phase, its intended applications hold great promise. One significant application involves restoring motor function in individuals with paralysis or motor impairments by bypassing damaged neural pathways. This grants them control over their movements and enhances their independence. Additionally, Neuralink’s technology can assist individuals with sensory impairments, like blindness or deafness, by providing a means to receive and interpret sensory information through the interface. It is crucial to emphasize the importance of extensive research, testing, and regulatory approvals. This is to ensure Neuralink’s safety, efficacy, and ethical considerations in medical settings. Neuralink’s ongoing development has the potential to significantly transform the lives of individuals with disabilities. However, it will require careful exploration and validation to fully realize its capabilities in medical intervention.
Figure 3: Structure of the Neuralink
Ethical and Safety Concerns of Neuralink The idea of implanting a chip in the brain may seem like an innovative and safe solution, but neuroscientists have raised ethical concerns about its potential risks. Dr. John Krakauer highlights that the development of a chip capable of controlling hormone levels or streaming music inside the brain is still in its early stages. Premature adoption of such technology could give people false hopes. Previous experiments have revealed serious safety concerns associated with the invasive and rushed nature of the product. In 2023, the FDA expressed concern about the device’s lithium battery, the potential migration of tiny wires to other brain regions, and the safe removal of the device without causing damage to the brain tissue. Lesions resulting from brain tissue damage can lead to symptoms such as weakness, sensory disruptions, confusion, and impaired involuntary movements. In contrast, noninvasive methods have shown promise in enhancing lives without the need for surgery or the risk of infection.
Studies have demonstrated improvements in the lives of elderly individuals, translation of brain activity into intelligible speech, and assistance for paralyzed patients. Shockingly, the Physicians Committee obtained internal records of a distressing monkey experiment where one of the infected monkeys exhibited infection at the surgical site and subsequent acute bleeding, leading to a dilapidated cerebral cortex. Acute bleeding in the brain can result in various symptoms such as headaches, nausea, seizures, limb weakness or numbness, difficulty in speech or comprehension, and loss of consciousness. Ryan Merkley, the Director of Research and Advocacy with the Physicians Committee, criticizes Elon Musk’s focus on invasive devices, asserting that investing in noninvasive brain-computer interfaces would be a more considerate approach to patient health. “Musk needs to drop his obsession with sticking a device in our heads. If he cared about patients’ health, he would invest in a noninvasive brain-computer interface.” -Ryan Merkley While researchers are extensively studying the potential long-term effects of implanting Neuralink in the brain, it is crucial to acknowledge the inherent invasiveness of the procedure and the associated risks and concerns. Complications, such as infection or bleeding, may arise from the surgical process itself. Furthermore, the presence of the implant within the brain raises additional worries regarding potential issues like tissue damage, inflammation, or immune responses. Ongoing investigations are essential to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the long-term implications, evaluate the safety profile, and effectively mitigate any potential risks associated with the implementation of the Neuralink implant.
Figure 4: Getting A Link, real imaging of the link
In conclusion, Neuralink represents an exciting and groundbreaking endeavor that holds tremendous promise for enhancing brain function. It also blurs the lines between humans and machines. For people with disabilities and neurological disorders, technology offers promising prospects. It improves communication, restores sensory and motor functions, and even allows them to control robots with mind control. Concerns have been raised regarding the invasiveness of the procedure, the rushed development, and potential risks such as brain tissue damage and device migration. Many critics argue that noninvasive alternatives should be explored further to improve lives without surgery and its complications. Although Neuralink’s ambitions are admirable, ethical consideration and a thorough evaluation of safety measures are crucial to ensuring the well-being of those undergoing the procedure.
